IASC: Interactive Agentic System for ConLangs

PHONOLOGY

Dömkala has a rich phonemic inventory with 20 consonants and 14 vowels:

The language distinguishes between voiced and voiceless consonants, and includes several nasal vowels. The presence of both /y/ and /u/ is notable, as is the inclusion of the uvular fricative /ʁ/. The vowel system is quite symmetrical, with front rounded vowels balancing their unrounded counterparts.

ORTHOGRAPHY

Dömkala uses a modified Arabic script for its writing system. Each phoneme is represented by a single character, with some creative adaptations to represent sounds not typically found in Arabic. For example:

• /p/ is represented by پ
• /v/ is represented by ڤ
• /ɲ/ is represented by ڽ
• /y/ is represented by ۆ
• /ø/ is represented by ۊ

Nasal vowels are indicated by the addition of a small alif above the vowel character, e.g., اٰ for /ɑ̃/.

MORPHOSYNTAX

Dömkala exhibits a rich morphological system with both prefixes and suffixes. Nouns are marked for number (singular, plural, dual) and case (nominative, accusative, genitive). Verbs are marked for tense (present, past, future), aspect, and person/number agreement.

Notable features include:

1. Three-way number distinction: singular (-lۇ), plural (-na), and dual (-ە)
2. Case marking: nominative (-as), accusative (-pe), genitive (-شٱغ)
3. Definite (-tan) and indefinite (-سيغ) markers
4. Verbal person/number agreement (e.g., -غۇن for 3SG, -ۇ for 3PL)
5. Tense markers: present (-نيغ), past (-ۇغ), future (-ە)
6. Comparative (-ۆ) and superlative (-ۆن) suffixes
7. Passive voice marker (-ەغ)

The language also uses prefixes, such as دۉم- for definiteness.

SYNTAX

Dömkala follows a VSO (Verb-Subject-Object) word order in main clauses. Adjectives follow the nouns they modify (NA order), and prepositions precede their objects (PN order).

Relative clauses are introduced by the particle ۆم (ym) and follow the noun they modify.

EXAMPLE TEXT

Here are a few examples from the provided text:

1. گغکيننيغغۇن کاما دۉمدەبولۇ ۆم بلغۉمۆنلۇاستان غاسي دۉمڤغوەنلۇ کەۋۇشٱغ
   gʁkin-niʁ-ʁɔn ka.ma dœm-de.bu-lɔ ym blʁœm-on-lɔ-as-tan ʁa.si dœm-vʁwɛn-lɔ ke.ɥɔ-ʃəʁ
   be-PRES-3SG he DEF-student-SING REL smart-SUP-SING-NOM-DEF in DEF-school-SING we-GEN
   "He is the smartest student in our school."
2. دەناٰنيغوۇ دۉمتغسيغنا پۆغە دۉمسنلٱکناشٱغ غاسي دغساسشٱغ
   de.nɑ̃-niʁ-u-ɔ dœm-tʁsiʁ-na po.ʁɛ dœm-snlək-na-ʃəʁ ʁa.si dʁsas-ʃəʁ
   fall-PRES-3PL-ACT DEF-leaf-PLUR from DEF-tree-PLUR-GEN in autumn-GEN
   "The leaves fall from the trees in autumn."
3. گلژۆنۇغغۇنۇ کامااس دۉملەتيلۇ فلفاٰنلۇپەتان مٱگە دۉمڤەشولۇ فلفاٰنلۇشٱغتان
   glʒyn-ɔʁ-ʁɔn-ɔ ka.ma-as dœm-le.ti-lɔ flfɑ̃n-lɔ-pe-tan mə.gɛ dœm-ve.ʃu-lɔ flfɑ̃n-lɔ-ʃəʁ-tan
   lend-PAST-3SG-ACT he-NOM DEF-bicycle-SING his-SING-ACC-DEF to DEF-cousin-SING his-SING-GEN-DEF
   "He lent his bicycle to his cousin."

LEXICON

A small sample of the Dömkala lexicon:

PHONOLOGY

Cyrillic Vostokan has a rich phonemic inventory consisting of 20 consonants and 14 vowels:

This phonemic inventory allows for a wide range of distinctive sounds, contributing to the language's unique character.

ORTHOGRAPHY

Cyrillic Vostokan uses a modified Cyrillic alphabet to represent its sounds. Some notable features include:

1. Use of ъ to represent the schwa (ə)
2. Repurposing of ѳ for the open-mid back rounded vowel (ɔ)
3. Use of њ for the palatal nasal (ɲ)
4. Representation of nasal vowels with distinct characters (ѧ, ѫ, ѩ)

The orthography aims to provide a one-to-one correspondence between phonemes and graphemes, with a few exceptions. This system allows for accurate representation of the language's sounds while maintaining a Cyrillic aesthetic.

MORPHOSYNTAX

Cyrillic Vostokan exhibits a rich morphological system with both fusional and agglutinative features. Key morphosyntactic characteristics include:

1. Nominal marking:
      • Number: Singular (-лѳ), Plural (-на), and Dual (-э)
      • Case: Nominative (-ас), Accusative (-пе), Genitive (-шър)

1. Verbal marking:
      • Tense-aspect: Present (-нир), Past (-ѳр), Future (-е)
      • Person agreement: Ergative-Absolutive alignment (e.g., -рѳн for 3SG.ERG, -тэл for 1SG.ABS)

1. Other features:
      • Definiteness marking: Definite (дём-...-тан), Indefinite (-сир)
      • Comparison: Comparative (-ы), Superlative (-он)
      • Voice: Active (-ѳ), Passive (-ер)

The language makes extensive use of suffixes for grammatical marking, with some prefixing (e.g., for definiteness). This results in potentially long, information-rich word forms.

SYNTAX

Cyrillic Vostokan follows a Verb-Subject-Object (VSO) word order in main clauses. Other syntactic features include:

1. Noun-Adjective order (NA): Adjectives follow the nouns they modify
2. Preposition-Noun order (PN): Adpositions precede their noun complements

These word order characteristics create a consistent head-initial pattern across different phrase types. Modifiers and complements generally follow their heads, contributing to a right-branching syntactic structure.

EXAMPLE TEXT

Here are two example sentences from the provided text, showcasing the language's orthography, morphosyntax, and syntax:

1. Гркинниррѳн кама дёмдебулѳ ым блрёмонлѳастан раси дёмврўэнлѳ кеюѳшър.
   gʁkin-niʁ-ʁɔn ka.ma dœm-de.bu-lɔ ym blʁœm-on-lɔ-as-tan ʁa.si dœm-vʁwɛn-lɔ ke.ɥɔ-ʃəʁ
   be-PRES-3SG he DEF-student-SING REL smart-SUP-SING-NOM-DEF in DEF-school-SING we-GEN
   "He is the smartest student in our school."
2. Денѧнируѳ дёмтрсирна порэ дёмснлъкнашър раси дрсасшър.
   de.nɑ̃-niʁ-u-ɔ dœm-tʁsiʁ-na po.ʁɛ dœm-snlək-na-ʃəʁ ʁa.si dʁsas-ʃəʁ
   fall-PRES-3PL-ACT DEF-leaf-PLUR from DEF-tree-PLUR-GEN in autumn-GEN
   "The leaves fall from the trees in autumn."

These examples demonstrate the VSO word order, case marking, tense-aspect marking, and the use of definite articles and relative clauses.

LEXICON

A small sample of the Cyrillic Vostokan lexicon:

This lexicon showcases the language's phonological and orthographic features, as well as some basic vocabulary items.

PHONOLOGY

Neokoine has a rich phonemic inventory with 20 consonants and 14 vowels:

The language features both oral and nasal vowels, as well as rounded front vowels (y, œ, ø) which are typologically less common. The consonant inventory includes the uvular fricative /ʁ/ and the palatal nasal /ɲ/, giving the language a somewhat French-like quality.

ORTHOGRAPHY

Neokoine uses a modified Greek alphabet for its orthography. Some notable features include:

• Use of digraphs for some sounds: ου /u/, αι /ɛ/
• Repurposing of obsolete Greek letters: ϸ /ʃ/, ϻ /ʒ/, ϙ /œ/
• Use of diacritics for nasal vowels: ᾶ /ɑ̃/, ῶ /ɔ̃/, ᾶι /ɛ̃/
• The letter υ represents /y/ when alone, but /ɥ/ after vowels

Some orthographic rules apply, such as σ becoming ζ before voiced consonants, and simplification of double σ to single σ.

MORPHOSYNTAX

Neokoine exhibits a rich morphological system with both prefixes and suffixes. Key features include:

1. Nominal morphology:
      • Number: singular (-λω), plural (-να), dual (-αι)
      • Case: nominative (-ασ), accusative (-πε), genitive (-ϸϵρ)
      • Definiteness: definite (δϙμ-), indefinite (-σιρ)

1. Verbal morphology:
      • Tense: present (-νιρ), past (-ωρ), future (-ε)
      • Aspect: perfective (-ω), imperfective (-ερ)
      • Person agreement: 1sg (-ταιλ), 2sg (-ι), 3sg (-ρων), 1pl (-ω), 3pl (-οϋ)
      • Voice: active (-ω), passive (-ερ)

1. Adjective morphology:
      • Degree: comparative (-υ), superlative (-ον)

1. Other features:
      • Subordination marker (-ιν)
      • Locative case (-τεκ)

SYNTAX

Neokoine follows a VSO (Verb-Subject-Object) word order for main clauses. Other syntactic features include:

1. Noun-Adjective (NA) order: The adjective follows the noun it modifies.
2. Preposition-Noun (PN) order: Prepositions precede their object nouns.
3. Relative clauses are introduced by the particle υμ and follow the noun they modify.
4. Negation is expressed by the particle οτ placed before the verb.

EXAMPLE TEXT

Here are some example sentences from the provided text, with gloss and English translation:

1. Γρκιννιρρων καμα δϙμδεβοϋλω υμ βλρϙμονλωασταν ρασι δϙμβρωαινλω κεϋωϸϵρ.
   be-PRES-3SG he DEF-student-SING REL smart-SUP-SING-NOM-DEF in DEF-school-SING we-GEN
   "He is the smartest student in our school."
2. Δενᾶνιροϋω δϙμτρσιρνα ποραι δϙμζνλϵκναϸϵρ ρασι δρσασϸϵρ.
   fall-PRES-3PL-ACT DEF-leaf-PLUR from DEF-tree-PLUR-GEN in autumn-GEN
   "The leaves fall from the trees in autumn."
3. Γλϻυνωρρωνω καμαασ δϙμλετιλω φλφᾶνλωπεταν μϵγαι δϙμβεϸοϋλω φλφᾶνλωϸϵρταν.
   lend-PAST-3SG-ACT he-NOM DEF-bicycle-SING his-SING-ACC-DEF to DEF-cousin-SING his-SING-GEN-DEF
   "He lent his bicycle to his cousin."

LEXICON

A small sample of the Neokoine lexicon:

βεμϙ - i
καμα - he
τᾶιβϙ - she
κεϋω - we
κϙρϵ - they
γρκιν - be
λϵσᾶι - go
τεβε - eat
ζϵσε - see
βλωϵκ - want
κϙτᾶι - like
γλβαρ - have
ρασι - in
μϵγαι - to
λιτϙ - for
σερε - with
οτ - NEG (negation particle)
υμ - REL (relative clause marker)

PHONOLOGY

Neofrancic has a rich phonological inventory with 20 consonants and 14 vowels:

The language features both oral and nasal vowels, as well as rounded front vowels (y, œ, ø), giving it a distinctly French-like quality. The consonant inventory includes the uvular fricative /ʁ/ and the palatal nasal /ɲ/, further reinforcing this impression.

ORTHOGRAPHY

Neofrancic uses a modified Latin alphabet. Some notable features include:

• 'c' represents /k/
• 'ch' represents /ʃ/
• 'j' represents /ʒ/
• 'ń' represents /ɲ/
• 'r' represents /ʁ/
• 'y' represents /j/
• 'ü' represents /ɥ/
• 'ou' represents /u/
• 'oe' represents /œ/
• 'eu' represents /ø/
• Nasal vowels are marked with a cedilla: 'ą' /ɑ̃/, 'ǫ' /ɔ̃/, 'ę' /ɛ̃/

This orthography allows for a relatively close correspondence between spelling and pronunciation while maintaining some familiar elements from languages like French.

MORPHOSYNTAX

Neofrancic is a highly agglutinative language with a rich system of suffixes. Key features include:

1. Nominal marking:
      • Number: singular (-lò), plural (-na), dual (-è)
      • Case: nominative (-as), accusative (-pé), genitive (-cher)
      • Definiteness: definite (-tan), indefinite (-cir)

1. Verbal marking:
      • Tense: present (-nir), past (-òr), future (-é)
      • Aspect: active (-ò)
      • Person agreement: 1sg (-tèl), 2sg (-i), 3sg (-ròn), 1pl (-ò), 3pl (-ou)

1. Other markers:
      • Comparative: -u
      • Superlative: -on
      • Locative: -téc
      • Passive: -ér
      • Subordinate: -in

Neofrancic does not mark grammatical gender and lacks an inclusive-exclusive distinction in pronouns. It does, however, employ a system of numeral classifiers.

SYNTAX

Neofrancic follows a VSO (Verb-Subject-Object) word order in main clauses. Other syntactic features include:

1. Adjective-Noun order: NA (Noun-Adjective)
2. Adposition-Noun order: PN (Preposition-Noun)

Relative clauses are introduced by the particle 'um' and follow the noun they modify.

EXAMPLE TEXT

Here are a few examples from the provided text, with orthographic transcription, gloss, and English translation:

1. Grcinnirròn cama doemdéboulò um blroemonlòastan raci doemvrwènlò céüòcher.
   be-PRES-3SG he DEF-student-SING REL smart-SUP-SING-NOM-DEF in DEF-school-SING we-GEN
   "He is the smartest student in our school."
2. Dénąnirouò doemtrcirna porè doemsnlecnacher raci drsascher.
   fall-PRES-3PL-ACT DEF-leaf-PLUR from DEF-tree-PLUR-GEN in autumn-GEN
   "The leaves fall from the trees in autumn."
3. Gljunòrrònò camaas doemlétilò flfąnlòpétan megè doemvéchoulò flfąnlòchertan.
   lend-PAST-3SG-ACT he-NOM DEF-bicycle-SING his-SING-ACC-DEF to DEF-cousin-SING his-SING-GEN-DEF
   "He lent his bicycle to his cousin."

LEXICON

A small sample of the Neofrancic lexicon:

bémeu - I
cama - he
céfę - house
céüò - we
dénąnir - fall (verb)
doem- - definite article prefix
grcinnir - to be
lesę - to go
megè - to
um - relative pronoun
vrwèn - school

PHONOLOGY

Zaru has a relatively simple phonological system consisting of 16 consonants and 5 vowels:

The language allows for consonant clusters and diphthongs. Syllable structure appears to be (C)V(C), with most words following a CV pattern.

ORTHOGRAPHY

Zaru uses an Arabic-inspired script, with some modifications to accommodate its phonological system. Consonants are represented by full letters, while vowels are typically indicated by diacritical marks above or below the consonants.

MORPHOSYNTAX

Zaru exhibits a rich morphological system with both prefixes and suffixes. Key features include:

1. Nominal marking:
      • Number: Singular (-o), Plural (-hu)
      • Case: Nominative (-o), Accusative (-u), Genitive (-nin)
      • Definiteness: Definite (ku-), Indefinite (-ra)

1. Verbal marking:
      • Tense: Present (-sa), Past (-han), Future (-tu)
      • Person and number agreement: 1SG (-u), 2SG (-bu), 3SG (-i), 1PL (-a), 3PL (-nen)
      • Voice: Active (-i), Passive (-u)

1. Adjectives:
      • Comparative (-ton)
      • Superlative (-pon)

1. Other features:
      • Relative clause marker: a
      • Negation: ne (preverbal particle)

SYNTAX

Zaru follows a VSO (Verb-Subject-Object) word order for main clauses. Other syntactic features include:

1. Adjective-Noun order: NA (Noun-Adjective)
2. Adposition-Noun order: PN (Preposition-Noun)
3. Relative clauses follow the noun they modify
4. Auxiliaries precede main verbs
5. Negation is expressed through a preverbal particle

EXAMPLE TEXT

Here are a few examples from the provided text, with orthography, gloss, and English translation:

1. زَرٗسَاٍ مَكُ كٗبُمُاُ اَ سُكِپُنُاُسَ رِزِ كٗكَسٍاُ تَغٍنٍن
   za.ru-sa-i ma.ko ku-bo.mo-o a so.ke-pon-o-o-sa re.ze ku-ka.si-o ta.gi-nin
   be-PRES-3SG he DEF-student-SING REL smart-SUP-SING-NOM-DEF in DEF-school-SING we-GEN
   "He is the smartest student in our school."
2. كٍزِسَنِنٍ كٗنِغَهٗ سِتِ كٗغٍمُهٗنٍن رِزِ تَكٍنٍن
   ki.ze-sa-nen-i ku-ne.ga-hu se.te ku-gi.mo-hu-nin re.ze ta.ki-nin
   fall-PRES-3PL-ACT DEF-leaf-PLUR from DEF-tree-PLUR-GEN in autumn-GEN
   "The leaves fall from the trees in autumn."
3. سُغَسَاٍاٍ كٗبُزٗاُ نٍسٗاُاُسَ غُغُ پٍرَ زَچٍاُ سٗمٗاُاٗرَ كٗنشٗ
   so.ga-sa-i-i ku-bo.zu-o ni.su-o-o-sa go.go pi.ra za.tʃi-o su.mu-o-u-ra ku.nʃu
   need-PRES-3SG-ACT DEF-country-SING our-SING-NOM-DEF to address change-SING climate-SING-ACC-INDEF together
   "Our country needs to address climate change together."

LEXICON

A small sample of the Zaru lexicon:

PHONOLOGY

Saruvian has a relatively simple phonological system consisting of 16 consonants and 5 vowels:

The language allows consonant clusters and diphthongs. Syllable structure is generally (C)V(C), with some more complex structures permitted.

ORTHOGRAPHY

Saruvian uses a modified Cyrillic alphabet for its orthography. Each phoneme is represented by a single character:

This orthography provides a one-to-one correspondence between sounds and symbols, making it relatively easy to learn and use. The use of Cyrillic gives the language a distinct visual character while maintaining phonetic clarity.

MORPHOSYNTAX

Saruvian exhibits a rich morphological system with both prefixes and suffixes. Key features include:

1. Number: Singular (-о), Plural (-ху), and Dual (-е) markers
2. Case: Nominative (-о), Accusative (-у), Genitive (-нин)
3. Definiteness: Definite prefix (ку-), Indefinite suffix (-ра)
4. Tense: Present (-са), Past (-хан), Future (-ту)
5. Person agreement: 1SG (-у), 2SG (-бу), 3SG (-и), 1PL (-а), 3PL (-нен)
6. Aspect: Active (-и)
7. Comparison: Comparative (-тон), Superlative (-пон)
8. Other markers: Passive (-у), Subordinate (-та)

Nouns inflect for number, case, and definiteness. Verbs show complex agreement patterns and mark tense and aspect. Adjectives can inflect for case, number, and comparison.

The language uses postpositions, as evidenced by the locative (-у) and genitive (-нин) case markers.

SYNTAX

Saruvian follows a VSO (Verb-Subject-Object) word order in main clauses. This is a relatively uncommon order cross-linguistically, found in about 9% of the world's languages.

Other syntactic features include:
1. Adjective-Noun: NA (Noun-Adjective) order
2. Adposition-Noun: PN (Preposition-Noun) order

The combination of VSO main order with NA adjective order is particularly rare, occurring in less than 4% of languages globally.

Relative clauses are marked with the particle 'а' and follow the noun they modify.

EXAMPLE TEXT

Here are two example sentences from the provided text, with orthography, gloss, and English translation:

1. Зарусаи мако кубомоо а сокепонооса резе кукасио тагинин.
   za.ru-sa-i ma.ko ku-bo.mo-o a so.ke-pon-o-o-sa re.ze ku-ka.si-o ta.gi-nin .
   be-PRES-3SG he DEF-student-SING REL smart-SUP-SING-NOM-DEF in DEF-school-SING we-GEN .
   "He is the smartest student in our school."
2. Кизесанени кунегаху сете кугимохунин резе такинин.
   ki.ze-sa-nen-i ku-ne.ga-hu se.te ku-gi.mo-hu-nin re.ze ta.ki-nin .
   fall-PRES-3PL-ACT DEF-leaf-PLUR from DEF-tree-PLUR-GEN in autumn-GEN .
   "The leaves fall from the trees in autumn."

These examples showcase several key features of Saruvian, including VSO word order, complex verbal morphology, and the use of case markers and definiteness prefixes.

LEXICON

A small sample of the Saruvian lexicon:

муайе (muaje) - house
раку (raku) - book
гоку (goku) - cat
хусу (husu) - dog
деайи (deaji) - day
хоко (hoko) - year
тате (tate) - friend
римо (rimo) - child
йеси (jesi) - man
тесо (teso) - she

This lexicon shows a preference for CVCV syllable structure, though other patterns are also present. The vocabulary items reflect basic concepts and actions, providing a foundation for more complex expressions in the language.

PHONOLOGY

Zetakos has a relatively simple phonological system consisting of 16 consonants and 5 vowels:

The language allows for consonant clusters and diphthongs. Syllable structure is generally (C)V(C), with most words following a CVCV pattern.

ORTHOGRAPHY

Zetakos uses a modified Greek alphabet for its writing system. This choice gives the language a unique visual aesthetic while using familiar letter shapes. Some key correspondences include:

• /ʃ/ is represented by ϸ
• /tʃ/ is written as τϸ
• /j/ uses ι
• /w/ is represented by ω

Vowels use their Greek counterparts: α (a), ο (o), υ (u), ε (e), ι (i)

This orthography allows for easy representation of the language's phonemes while giving it a distinct appearance.

MORPHOSYNTAX

Zetakos exhibits a rich morphological system with both prefixes and suffixes. Key features include:

1. Nominal marking:
      • Number: Singular (-o), Plural (-hu), Dual (-e)
      • Case: Nominative (-o), Accusative (-u), Genitive (-nin)
      • Definiteness: Definite (ku-), Indefinite (-ra)

1. Verbal marking:
      • Tense: Present (-sa), Past (-han), Future (-tu)
      • Person agreement: 1SG (-u), 2SG (-bu), 3SG (-i), 1PL (-a), 3PL (-nen)
      • Voice: Active (-i), Passive (-u)

1. Adjectives:
      • Comparative (-ton)
      • Superlative (-pon)

1. Other features:
      • Subordinate marker (-ta)
      • Locative case (-u)

The language makes extensive use of agglutination, with words often carrying multiple affixes to convey grammatical information.

SYNTAX

Zetakos follows a Verb-Subject-Object (VSO) word order, which is less common among world languages but provides a unique structure. Other syntactic features include:

1. Adjective-Noun order: The adjective follows the noun (NA)
2. Adposition-Noun order: Prepositions are used (PN)
3. Relative clauses: Introduced by the particle "a" and follow the noun they modify
4. Numeral classifiers: Used between numbers and nouns

These features combine to create a distinct syntactic structure that sets Zetakos apart from many natural languages.

EXAMPLE TEXT

Here are two example sentences from the provided text, with orthography, gloss, and English translation:

1. Ζαρυσαι κυσοκιο α ζεγοοοσα ωασεωυτονοοσα ωομο τετα κυιυκεο α χυυιαοοσα.
   be-PRES-3SG DEF-phone-SING REL new-SING-NOM-DEF expensive-COMP-SING-NOM-DEF twice as DEF-model-SING REL old-SING-NOM-DEF.
   "The new phone is twice as expensive as the old model."
2. Κιζεσανενι κυνεγαχυ σετε κυγιμοχυνιν ρεζε τακινιν.
   fall-PRES-3PL-ACT DEF-leaf-PLUR from DEF-tree-PLUR-GEN in autumn-GEN.
   "The leaves fall from the trees in autumn."

These examples showcase the VSO word order, the use of case marking, and the relative clause structure of Zetakos.

LEXICON

A small sample of the Zetakos lexicon:

This lexicon demonstrates the root forms of words, which then take on various affixes to express grammatical relationships and meanings.

PHONOLOGY

Zashuni has a relatively simple phonological system consisting of 16 consonants and 5 vowels:

The language allows consonant clusters and diphthongs. Syllable structure is typically (C)V(C), with most words being disyllabic or trisyllabic.

ORTHOGRAPHY

Zashuni uses a modified Latin alphabet. Most sounds correspond directly to their IPA equivalents, with a few exceptions:

• /ʃ/ is written as 'sh'
• /tʃ/ is written as 'ch'
• /j/ is written as 'y'

Long vowels are marked with a circumflex:
- /ii/ becomes 'î'
- /uu/ becomes 'û'

The orthography is largely phonemic, making it relatively easy to read and write once the basic rules are learned.

MORPHOSYNTAX

Zashuni is an agglutinative language with a rich system of suffixes. Key morphosyntactic features include:

1. Nominal marking:
      • Number: singular (-o) and plural (-hu)
      • Case: nominative (-o), accusative (-u), genitive (-nin)
      • Definiteness: definite (-sa), indefinite (-ra)

1. Verbal marking:
      • Tense: present (-sa), past (-han), future (-tu)
      • Person and number agreement: 1SG (-u), 2SG (-bu), 3SG (-i), 1PL (-a), 3PL (-nen)
      • Voice: active (-i), passive (-u)

1. Adjectives:
      • Comparative: -ton
      • Superlative: -pon

1. Other markers:
      • Locative: -u
      • Subordinate: -ta

Zashuni does not mark gender grammatically and lacks an inclusive-exclusive distinction in pronouns.

SYNTAX

Zashuni follows a VSO (Verb-Subject-Object) word order in main clauses. Other syntactic features include:

1. Adjective-Noun order: NA (Noun-Adjective)
2. Adposition-Noun order: PN (Preposition-Noun)
3. Relative clauses are marked with the particle 'a' and follow the noun they modify
4. Negation is expressed using the particle 'ne' before the verb

The VSO order, combined with the NA adjective order, gives Zashuni a distinct syntactic profile that sets it apart from many other languages.

EXAMPLE TEXT

Here are a few examples from the provided text, showing the orthography, gloss, and English translation:

1. Zarusai maco cubomoo a soceponoosa reze cucasio taginin.
   be-PRES-3SG he DEF-student-SING REL smart-SUP-SING-NOM-DEF in DEF-school-SING we-GEN
   "He is the smartest student in our school."
2. Cizesaneni cunegahu sete cugimohunin reze tacinin.
   fall-PRES-3PL-ACT DEF-leaf-PLUR from DEF-tree-PLUR-GEN in autumn-GEN
   "The leaves fall from the trees in autumn."
3. Sogasaî cubozuo nisuoosa gogo pira zachio sumuoura cunshu.
   need-PRES-3SG-ACT DEF-country-SING our-SING-NOM-DEF to address change-SING climate-SING-ACC-INDEF together
   "Our country needs to address climate change together."

These examples demonstrate various aspects of Zashuni grammar, including VSO word order, case marking, tense marking, and the use of particles and affixes.

LEXICON

A small sample of the Zashuni lexicon:

zaru - be
chuto - go
muta - like
ciewo - eat
hura - buy
sope - write
cahi - build
rino - bury
seho - bake
tora - elect

muaye - house
gimo - tree
catu - flower
husu - dog
gocu - cat
rimo - child
bomo - student
rusi - teacher
hoco - year
deayi - day

cime - hot
zego - new
hûya - old
pumu - small
soce - smart
nabu - sunny
hawaco - delicious

This lexicon shows a mix of verbs, nouns, and adjectives, giving a glimpse into the vocabulary of Zashuni. The language appears to use mostly disyllabic or trisyllabic roots, with a phonological structure that reflects the overall sound system of the language.

PHONOLOGY

Alnari has a phoneme inventory consisting of 20 consonants and 5 vowels:

The syllable structure appears to be (C)V(C), allowing both open and closed syllables.

ORTHOGRAPHY

Alnari uses an Arabic-inspired script for its writing system. Some key correspondences include:

Vowels:
a -> ا, e -> ە, i -> ی, o -> ۆ, u -> و

This orthography allows for a distinct visual representation of Alnari's phonemes, while drawing inspiration from Arabic script.

MORPHOSYNTAX

Alnari exhibits a rich morphological system with both nominal and verbal inflection.

Nominal Morphology:
- Number: Singular (-ses) and Plural (-ra)
- Case: Nominative (-ro), Accusative (-ras), Genitive (-nes)
- Definiteness: Definite (nu-) and Indefinite (-non)

Verbal Morphology:
- Tense: Present (-no), Past (-sal), Future (-le)
- Person/Number agreement: 1SG (-rin), 2SG (-da), 3SG (-le), 1PL (-ri), 3PL (-din)
- Voice: Active (-na), Passive (-lin)

Other notable morphemes:
- Comparative: -ras
- Superlative: -ler
- Locative: -ni
- Subordinator: -nu

Alnari uses suffixes for most grammatical markers, with the exception of the definite article which is a prefix.

SYNTAX

Alnari follows a VSO (Verb-Subject-Object) word order for main clauses. Other syntactic features include:

• Adjective-Noun: NA (Noun-Adjective)
• Adposition-Noun: PN (Preposition-Noun)
• Relative clauses are marked with the particle 'rar' and follow the noun they modify
• Numeral classifiers are used, placed between the noun and the number

EXAMPLE TEXT

Here are a few example sentences from Alnari, with orthographic representation, gloss, and English translation:

1. ەتنانۆلە ەتلا نوەنلاسەس رار ەپلولەرسەسرۆنا اللە نوسادۆسەس یسسانەس
   et.na-no-le et.la nu-en.la-ses rar ep.lu-ler-ses-ro-na al.le nu-sa.do-ses is.sa-nes .
   be-PRES-3SG he DEF-student-SING REL smart-SUP-SING-NOM-DEF in DEF-school-SING we-GEN .
   "He is the smartest student in our school."
2. یژسەنۆدیننا نولیدیرا ۆڵلی نونانیرانەس اللە لۆدینەس
   iʝ.se-no-din-na nu-li.di-ra oʎ.li nu-na.ni-ra-nes al.le lo.di-nes .
   fall-PRES-3PL-ACT DEF-leaf-PLUR from DEF-tree-PLUR-GEN in autumn-GEN .
   "The leaves fall from the trees in autumn."
3. ەنسوساللەنا ەتلارۆ نوساروسەس نۆراسەسراسنا انری نوسینۆسەس نۆراسەسنەسنا
   en.su-sal-le-na et.la-ro nu-sa.ru-ses no.ra-ses-ras-na an.ri nu-si.no-ses no.ra-ses-nes-na .
   lend-PAST-3SG-ACT he-NOM DEF-bicycle-SING his-SING-ACC-DEF to DEF-cousin-SING his-SING-GEN-DEF .
   "He lent his bicycle to his cousin."

LEXICON

A small sample of the Alnari lexicon:

PHONOLOGY

Etnaril has a phoneme inventory consisting of 20 consonants and 5 vowels:

ORTHOGRAPHY

Etnaril uses a Cyrillic-based orthography. Some notable correspondences include:

The orthography is largely phonemic, with most sounds having a one-to-one correspondence with letters. This makes reading and writing Etnaril relatively straightforward once the system is learned.

MORPHOSYNTAX

Etnaril exhibits a rich morphological system with both nominal and verbal inflection.

Nouns are marked for number (singular, plural, dual) and case (nominative, accusative, genitive). Case is indicated through suffixes:
- Nominative: -ро
- Accusative: -рас
- Genitive: -нес

Verbs are marked for tense (present, past, future), aspect, and person agreement. Tense markers include:
- Present: -но
- Past: -сал
- Future: -ле

Person agreement is complex, with distinct markers for subject and object agreement. For example:
- 1st person singular subject: -рин
- 3rd person plural subject: -дин

The language also employs various derivational affixes, such as:
- Superlative: -лер
- Comparative: -рас
- Passive: -лин

Etnaril uses classifiers with numbers, though the specific classifier system is not detailed in the provided information.

SYNTAX

Etnaril follows a VSO (Verb-Subject-Object) word order, which is relatively uncommon among the world's languages. Adjectives follow the nouns they modify (NA order), and prepositions precede their noun phrases (PN order).

Relative clauses are introduced with the particle рар and follow the noun they modify.

EXAMPLE TEXT

Here are two example sentences from the provided text:

1. Етнаноле нуатлосес рар соросесрона ринудрассесрона серо нири нуарлесес рар наласесрона.

Gloss: be-PRES-3SG DEF-phone-SING REL new-SING-NOM-DEF expensive-COMP-SING-NOM-DEF twice as DEF-model-SING REL old-SING-NOM-DEF

1. Насесалдинна нулолираро алле нуносесеснес.

Gloss: play-PAST-3PL-ACT DEF-child-PLUR-NOM in DEF-park-SING-GEN

These examples demonstrate the VSO word order, the use of case markers, and the placement of relative clauses.

LEXICON

A small sample of the Etnaril lexicon:

етна - be
сара - go
реде - like
насе - play
саса - see
оссо - bake
адно - bury
нуне - they
исса - we
дени - I
едлу - thou
рода - she
етла - he
нуотса - cat
нуседи - dog
нуафлу - house
нусадо - school
нуреле - book

This lexicon shows some patterns in word formation, such as the use of ну- as a definite article prefix for nouns.

PHONOLOGY

Ετνανο has a relatively simple phonological system consisting of 20 consonants and 5 vowels:

The language features a contrast between voiced and voiceless stops, as well as a rich set of fricatives and liquids. The presence of palatal consonants (ɲ, ʎ, ʝ) adds complexity to the system.

ORTHOGRAPHY

Ετνανο uses a modified Greek alphabet for its orthography. Most letters correspond directly to their IPA equivalents, with a few exceptions:

• 'ου' represents /u/
• 'τσ' represents /tʃ/
• 'νι' represents /ɲ/
• 'λι' represents /ʎ/
• 'ρρ' represents /r/ (as opposed to 'ρ' for /ɾ/)
• 'γι' represents /ʝ/

The orthography is largely phonemic, making it relatively easy to read and write once the system is learned.

MORPHOSYNTAX

Ετνανο exhibits a rich morphological system with both nominal and verbal inflection.

Nouns are marked for number (singular, plural) and case (nominative, accusative, genitive). Cases are marked by suffixes:
- Nominative: -ρο
- Accusative: -ρας
- Genitive: -νες

Verbs are marked for tense (present, past, future), aspect, and person/number agreement. The language uses a nominative-accusative alignment system. Verb suffixes include:
- Present: -νο
- Past: -σαλ
- Future: -λε

Person agreement is marked by suffixes such as:
- 1SG: -ριν
- 3SG: -λε
- 3PL: -διν

The language also has a range of other grammatical markers, including:
- Definite article: νου-
- Comparative: -ρας
- Superlative: -λερ
- Passive: -λιν

Ετνανο does not mark grammatical gender and does not have an inclusive-exclusive distinction in pronouns.

SYNTAX

Ετνανο follows a VSO (Verb-Subject-Object) word order in main clauses. Adjectives follow the nouns they modify (NA order), and the language uses prepositions (PN order).

Relative clauses are introduced by the particle 'ραρ' and follow the noun they modify.

EXAMPLE TEXT

Here are a few examples from the provided text:

1. Ετνανολε νουατλοσες ραρ σοροσεσρονα ρινουδρασσεσρονα σερο νιρι νουαρλεσες ραρ ναλασεσρονα.
   be-PRES-3SG DEF-phone-SING REL new-SING-NOM-DEF expensive-COMP-SING-NOM-DEF twice as DEF-model-SING REL old-SING-NOM-DEF.
   "The new phone is twice as expensive as the old model."
2. Ετνανορι σαρανορινα ισσαρο ανρι νουρελερανες ουνσι, ετρανοδα ανρι ανρα ισσαρας?
   be-PRES-1PL go-PRES-1PL-ACT we-NOM to DEF-movie-PLUR-GEN later, want-PRES-2SG to join we-ACC?
   "We are going to the movies later, do you want to join us?"
3. Ενδασαλδιννα νουλολιραρο ασρασεσρας, λενου σανοσαλλενα σεραρο ραροσες ραρ αμλεσεσνεσνα.
   build-PAST-3PL-ACT DEF-child-PLUR-NOM snowman-SING-ACC, and melt-PAST-3SG-ACT it-NOM day-SING REL next-SING-GEN-DEF.
   "The children built a snowman, and it melted the next day."

LEXICON

A small sample of the lexicon:

ετνα - be
σαρα - go
νου- - DEF (definite article prefix)
-ρο - NOM (nominative suffix)
-ρας - ACC (accusative suffix)
-νες - GEN (genitive suffix)
ραρ - REL (relative clause marker)
λενου - and
σαν - NEG (negation particle)
αλλε - in
ανρι - to

PHONOLOGY

Etlanese has a phoneme inventory consisting of 20 consonants and 5 vowels:

The language features several distinctive sounds, including the palatal nasal /ɲ/, the palatal lateral approximant /ʎ/, and the voiced palatal fricative /ʝ/. These sounds add a unique flavor to the phonological system of Etlanese.

The language allows for consonant clusters, particularly in word-initial and word-medial positions. Syllable structure tends to favor CV and CVC patterns, though more complex structures are possible.

ORTHOGRAPHY

Etlanese uses a Latin-based alphabet with some modifications to represent its phonemes. The orthography is largely phonemic, with most letters corresponding directly to a single phoneme. Some notable features include:

• /θ/ is represented by 'th'
• /x/ is represented by 'h'
• /tʃ/ is represented by 'ch'
• /ɲ/ is represented by 'ñ'
• /ʎ/ is represented by 'll'
• /ɾ/ is represented by 'r', while /r/ is represented by 'rr'
• /j/ is represented by 'y'
• /ʝ/ is represented by 'j'

This orthographic system allows for a relatively straightforward relationship between spelling and pronunciation, making it easier for learners to read and write Etlanese.

MORPHOSYNTAX

Etlanese exhibits a rich morphological system with extensive use of suffixes to mark grammatical features. Some key aspects of Etlanese morphosyntax include:

1. Number: The language distinguishes between singular (-ses) and plural (-ra) forms.

1. Case: Etlanese uses a nominative-accusative system, with case markers including:
      • Nominative: -ro
      • Accusative: -ras
      • Genitive: -nes

1. Definiteness: Marked by prefixes (nu- for definite) and suffixes (-na for definite, -non for indefinite).

1. Tense: Verbs are marked for tense, including:
      • Present: -no
      • Past: -sal
      • Future: -le

1. Person and number agreement on verbs:
      • First person singular: -rin
      • Second person singular: -da
      • Third person singular: -le
      • First person plural: -ri
      • Third person plural: -din

1. Other notable morphemes:
      • Comparative: -ras
      • Superlative: -ler
      • Active voice: -na
      • Passive voice: -lin
      • Subordinate clause marker: -nu

Etlanese also features a system of numeral classifiers, though specific examples are not provided in the given lexicon.

SYNTAX

Etlanese follows a VSO (Verb-Subject-Object) word order in main clauses. This is relatively uncommon among the world's languages and gives Etlanese a distinctive syntactic flavor. Other word order features include:

1. Adjective-Noun: Etlanese uses a noun-adjective (NA) order, with adjectives following the nouns they modify.

1. Adposition-Noun: The language employs prepositions (PN order), with adpositions preceding their noun complements.

1. Relative clauses: Introduced by the relative pronoun 'rar' and follow the noun they modify.

1. Negation: The negative particle 'san' typically precedes the verb.

1. Subordinate clauses: Often marked by the subordinate suffix -nu on the verb.

EXAMPLE TEXT

Here are a few examples from the provided text, showcasing various features of Etlanese:

1. Etnanole etla nuenlases rar eplulersesrona alle nusadoses issanes.
   be-PRES-3SG he DEF-student-SING REL smart-SUP-SING-NOM-DEF in DEF-school-SING we-GEN
   "He is the smartest student in our school."
2. Ijsenodinna nulidira ollli nunaniranes alle lodines.
   fall-PRES-3PL-ACT DEF-leaf-PLUR from DEF-tree-PLUR-GEN in autumn-GEN
   "The leaves fall from the trees in autumn."
3. Redenolena san rodaro larises asnesesrasnon.
   like-PRES-3SG-ACT NEG she-NOM food-SING spicy-SING-ACC-INDEF
   "She doesn't like spicy food."

These examples demonstrate the VSO word order, case marking, tense marking, and the use of relative clauses and negation in Etlanese.

LEXICON

Etlanese has a rich lexicon, with words for various concepts. Here's a small sample from the provided lexicon:

aflu: house
dini: bread
emni: friend
lari: food
nani: tree
otsa: cat
rele: book
sara: go
sedo: dog
ulle: country

The lexicon shows a mix of simple roots and more complex derived forms, reflecting the agglutinative nature of Etlanese morphology.

PHONOLOGY

Thraenian has a rich phonemic inventory with 26 consonants and 15 vowels:

ORTHOGRAPHY

Thraenian uses a modified Arabic script for its orthography. Some notable correspondences include:

• ɬ is represented by ڵ
• ɬ̥ is represented by ڶ
• r̥ is represented by ڕ
• ŋ is represented by ڭ

Vowels are represented by both standard Arabic vowel letters and additional characters:

• ɛ and æ are both represented by ە
• ɨ is represented by ى
• ə is represented by ə (retained from IPA)

MORPHOSYNTAX

Thraenian is an agglutinative language with a rich system of suffixes. Key features include:

1. Number: Singular (-fək), Plural (-wəl), and Dual (-nit) are marked on nouns.

1. Case: Nominative (-el), Accusative (-kə), Genitive (-vɔdʒ), and Locative (-θɔ) are marked on nouns.

1. Definiteness: Definite (-fɔɪg) and Indefinite (-ðeb) markers exist.

1. Tense: Present (-ɔŋ), Past (-lu), and Future (-ɛk) are marked on verbs.

1. Person agreement: Verbs agree with subjects in person and number (e.g., -ʃow for 1SG, -jiv for 2SG, -ɔʃ for 3SG, -ʃi for 1PL, -θɛ for 3PL).

1. Voice: Active (-θɛ) and Passive (-ʃaʊɬ) are marked on verbs.

1. Degree: Comparative (-wuk) and Superlative (-aw) suffixes exist for adjectives.

1. Verbal nouns: The suffix -il is used to form verbal nouns or infinitives.

SYNTAX

Thraenian follows a VSO (Verb-Subject-Object) word order in main clauses. Other syntactic features include:

1. Adjectives follow the nouns they modify (NA order).
2. Adpositions precede their noun complements (PN order).
3. Relative clauses are introduced by the particle 'no' and follow the noun they modify.
4. The negation particle 'ko' precedes the verb it negates.
5. Subordinate clauses typically follow the main clause.

EXAMPLE TEXT

Here are a few examples from the provided text, with orthographic representation, gloss, and English translation:

1. تٹبəۆڭۆش ثرنۆر ێڕکلپۆثفəک نۆ لۆفٹاوفəکێلفۆيگ کرذاڵ ێڕخۇيیفəک لٹتوڤۆج
   tɪ.bə-ɔŋ-ɔʃ θrnɔr er̥-klpoθ-fək no lɔ.fɪ-aw-fək-el-fɔɪg krðaɬ er̥-χʊ.ji-fək lɪ.tu-vɔdʒ
   be-PRES-3SG he DEF-student-SING REL smart-SUP-SING-NOM-DEF in DEF-school-SING we-GEN
   "He is the smartest student in our school."
2. سنتۆل تٹبəۆڭشۆو گلدىفۆڭشۆوثە وەنۆێل پەثە ێڕپلسووفəکڤۆج پەثە ستڤەروəلڤۆج 30
   sntol tɪ.bə-ɔŋ-ʃow gldɨf-ɔŋ-ʃow-θɛ wɛ.nɔ-el pɛ.θɛ er̥-plsuw-fək-vɔdʒ pɛ.θɛ stvɛr-wəl-vɔdʒ 30
   have be-PRES-1SG wait-PRES-1SG-ACT i-NOM for DEF-bus-SING-GEN for minute-PLUR-GEN 30
   "I have been waiting for the bus for 30 minutes."
3. پرثاللوۆشثە ێڕڵوتارفəکێل ێڕرووەفəککə کرذاڵ ێڕوۆڤەکفəکڤۆج
   prθal-lu-ɔʃ-θɛ er̥-ɬwtar-fək-el er̥-ru.wɛ-fək-kə krðaɬ er̥-wo.væk-fək-vɔdʒ
   bury-PAST-3SG-ACT DEF-dog-SING-NOM DEF-bone-SING-ACC in DEF-backyard-SING-GEN
   "The dog buried the bone in the backyard."

LEXICON

A small selection from the Thraenian lexicon:

PHONOLOGY

Voshlang has a rich phonemic inventory with 26 consonants and 15 vowels:

ORTHOGRAPHY

Voshlang uses a modified Cyrillic alphabet for its orthography. Some notable features include:

• The use of ң for the velar nasal ŋ
• ѳ represents θ, while ђ represents ð
• ў is used for w
• џ represents dʒ
• ԓ is used for ɬ, with ԓ̥ for the devoiced variant
• р̥ represents the devoiced trill r̥
• ӥ, ө, ӯ, ә, and ы represent ɪ, o, ʊ, ə, and ɨ respectively
• ӕ is used for æ

This orthography allows for a unique visual representation of Voshlang's phonology while maintaining some familiarity for speakers of languages using Cyrillic scripts.

MORPHOSYNTAX

Voshlang exhibits a complex agglutinative morphology with a rich system of affixes. Key features include:

1. Nominal morphology:
      • Number: Singular (-фәк), Plural (-ўәл), and Dual (-нит)
      • Case: Nominative (-ел), Accusative (-кә), Genitive (-воџ)
      • Definiteness: Definite (-фойг), Indefinite (-ђеб)

1. Verbal morphology:
      • Tense: Present (-оң), Past (-лу), Future (-эк)
      • Aspect: Active (-ѳэ), Passive (-шаўԓ)
      • Person agreement: 1SG (-шөў), 2SG (-йив), 3SG (-ош), 1PL (-ши), 3PL (-ѳэ)

1. Adjectival morphology:
      • Comparative (-ўук)
      • Superlative (-аў)

1. Other notable affixes:
      • Locative (-ѳо)
      • Subordinate (-ил)

The language also uses prefixes, such as ер̥- for definiteness.

SYNTAX

Voshlang follows a VSO (Verb-Subject-Object) word order, which is relatively uncommon among the world's languages. Other syntactic features include:

1. Adjective-Noun order: Nouns precede their modifying adjectives (NA)
2. Adposition-Noun order: Prepositions are used rather than postpositions (PN)
3. Relative clauses: Introduced by the particle нө and follow the noun they modify

EXAMPLE TEXT

Here are a few examples from the provided text, showcasing Voshlang's grammar:

1. Тӥбәоңош ѳрнор ер̥клпөѳфәк нө лофӥаўфәкелфойг крђаԓ ер̥хӯйифәк лӥтувоџ.
   be-PRES-3SG he DEF-student-SING REL smart-SUP-SING-NOM-DEF in DEF-school-SING we-GEN
   "He is the smartest student in our school."
2. Ѳрланоңѳэѳэ ер̥чөбөўәл дрлур ер̥гртӥтўәлвоџ крђаԓ кўԓачвоџ.
   fall-PRES-3PL-ACT DEF-leaf-PLUR from DEF-tree-PLUR-GEN in autumn-GEN
   "The leaves fall from the trees in autumn."
3. Йэѳэлуошѳэ ѳрнорел ер̥тәнөфәк сӯлуфәккәфойг прхӯф ер̥глтэбфәк сӯлуфәквоџфойг.
   lend-PAST-3SG-ACT he-NOM DEF-bicycle-SING his-SING-ACC-DEF to DEF-cousin-SING his-SING-GEN-DEF
   "He lent his bicycle to his cousin."

These examples demonstrate the VSO word order, case marking, and the use of the relative particle нө.

LEXICON

A small sample of the Voshlang lexicon:

This lexicon showcases some of the basic vocabulary and grammatical particles used in Voshlang.

PHONOLOGY

Thalassian has a rich phonemic inventory with 26 consonants and 15 vowels:

The language allows complex syllable structures, including consonant clusters.

ORTHOGRAPHY

Thalassian uses a modified Greek alphabet for its writing system. Some key correspondences include:

• ς represents /ʃ/ (except word-finally where it represents /s/)
• χ represents /χ/
• γγ represents /ŋ/
• ου represents /u/
• αι, αυ, οι represent the diphthongs /aɪ/, /aʊ/, /ɔɪ/ respectively

The orthography includes some context-sensitive rules, such as using ς for word-final /s/.

MORPHOSYNTAX

Thalassian is a highly agglutinative language with a rich system of affixes. Key features include:

1. Nominal morphology:
      • Number: singular (-φεκ), plural (-ωελ), dual (-νιτ)
      • Case: nominative (-ηλ), accusative (-κε), genitive (-βοτζ)
      • Definiteness: definite (ηρχ-), indefinite (-δηβ)

1. Verbal morphology:
      • Tense: present (-ογγ), past (-λου), future (-εκ)
      • Aspect: perfective (-θε), imperfective (unmarked)
      • Voice: active (-θε), passive (-ςαυλλ)
      • Person agreement: 1sg (-ςωω), 2sg (-ιιβ), 3sg (-ος), 1pl (-ςι), 3pl (-θε)

1. Adjectives:
      • Comparative: -ωουκ
      • Superlative: -αω

1. Other features:
      • Locative case: -θο
      • Subordinate marker: -ιλ

SYNTAX

Thalassian follows a VSO (Verb-Subject-Object) word order in main clauses. Other syntactic features include:

1. Adjective-Noun order: NA (Noun-Adjective)
2. Adposition-Noun order: PN (Preposition-Noun)
3. Relative clauses are introduced by the particle νω and follow the noun they modify
4. Negation is expressed by the particle κω placed before the verb
5. Questions are formed by intonation rather than word order change

EXAMPLE TEXT

Here are a few examples from the provided text, with orthographic transcription, gloss, and English translation:

1. Τιβεογγος θρνορ ηρχκλπωθφεκ νω λοφιαωφεκηλφοιγ κρδαλλ ηρχχυιιφεκ λιτουβοτζ.
   be-PRES-3SG he DEF-student-SING REL smart-SUP-SING-NOM-DEF in DEF-school-SING we-GEN
   "He is the smartest student in our school."
2. Θρλανογγθεθε ηρχτςωβωωελ δρλουρ ηρχγρτιτωελβοτζ κρδαλλ κωλλατςβοτζ.
   fall-PRES-3PL-ACT DEF-leaf-PLUR from DEF-tree-PLUR-GEN in autumn-GEN
   "The leaves fall from the trees in autumn."
3. Γωβοχλουθεθε ηρχσκτςαδωεληλ κρδαλλ ηρχτςηθυφεκβοτζ.
   play-PAST-3PL-ACT DEF-child-PLUR-NOM in DEF-park-SING-GEN
   "The children played in the park."

LEXICON

A small sample of the Thalassian lexicon:

PHONOLOGY

Threlkish has a rich phonemic inventory with 26 consonants and 15 vowels:

ORTHOGRAPHY

Threlkish uses a modified Latin alphabet. Most consonants are represented by their IPA equivalents, with some exceptions:

• /ŋ/ is written as 'ng'
• /θ/ is written as 'th'
• /ʃ/ is written as 'sh'
• /χ/ is written as 'kh'
• /ð/ is written as 'dh'
• /tʃ/ is written as 'ch'
• /dʒ/ is written as 'j'
• /ɬ/ and /ɬ̥/ are both written as 'lh'
• /r̥/ is written as 'rh'

Vowels use diacritics to distinguish similar sounds:

• /e/ is written as 'é'
• /ɪ/ is written as 'ï'
• /o/ is written as 'ó'
• /ʊ/ is written as 'ü'
• /ə/ is written as 'ë'
• /ɨ/ is written as 'ÿ'

The diphthongs are written as 'ai', 'au', and 'oi', while /æ/ retains its IPA symbol.

MORPHOSYNTAX

Threlkish is a highly agglutinative language with a complex system of suffixes. Nouns are marked for number (singular -fëk, plural -wël, dual -nit) and case (nominative -él, accusative -kë, genitive -voj). There's also a definite article prefix érh- and an indefinite suffix -dhéb.

Verbs are marked for tense (present -ong, past -lu, future -ek), person, and number. They also have active (-the) and passive (-shaulh) voice markers. Person markers include -shów (1SG), -yiv (2SG), -osh (3SG), -shi (1PL), and -the (3PL).

Adjectives agree with nouns in number, case, and definiteness. They can also take comparative (-wuk) and superlative (-aw) suffixes.

Other notable morphemes include the subordinate marker -il, the locative case -tho, and various derivational suffixes.

SYNTAX

Threlkish follows a VSO (Verb-Subject-Object) word order. Adjectives follow the nouns they modify (NA order), and prepositions precede their objects (PN order).

Relative clauses are introduced by the particle 'nó' and follow the noun they modify. The language uses prepositions rather than postpositions, consistent with its PN order.

Negation is expressed by the particle 'kó' placed before the verb. Questions are likely formed through intonation, as no specific question particles or word order changes are evident in the provided examples.

EXAMPLE TEXT

Here are a few examples from the provided text, with orthographic transcription, gloss, and English translation:

1. Tïbëongosh thrnor érhklpóthfëk nó lofïawfëkélfoig krdhalh érhkhüyifëk lïtuvoj.
   be-PRES-3SG he DEF-student-SING REL smart-SUP-SING-NOM-DEF in DEF-school-SING we-GEN
   "He is the smartest student in our school."
2. Thrlanongthethe érhchóbówël drlur érhgrtïtwëlvoj krdhalh kwlhachvoj.
   fall-PRES-3PL-ACT DEF-leaf-PLUR from DEF-tree-PLUR-GEN in autumn-GEN
   "The leaves fall from the trees in autumn."
3. Frmurongoshthe érhflbÿrhfëkél pausén trkaulvoj.
   blow-PRES-3SG-ACT DEF-wind-SING-NOM strongly today-GEN
   "The wind blows strongly today."

These examples demonstrate the VSO word order, the use of case and number markers, and the relative clause structure.

LEXICON

A small sample of the Threlkish lexicon:

tïbë - be
blténg - go
pohë - see
gwboh - play
thrlan - fall
frmur - blow
smfel - like
prshæb - need
sntól - have
skgash - build
faihi - bake
thrgel - elect

This lexicon shows a preference for monosyllabic or disyllabic root words, often with consonant clusters that reflect the language's complex phonology.

PHONOLOGY

Shalāmi has a rich phonemic inventory with 20 consonants and 14 vowels:

The language features both oral and nasal vowels, as well as rounded front vowels (y, œ, ø). The consonant inventory includes the uvular fricative /ʁ/ and the palatal nasal /ɲ/, which are relatively uncommon cross-linguistically.

Shalāmi allows for complex syllable structures, with consonant clusters permitted in both onset and coda positions. Stress is not phonemic and typically falls on the final syllable of a word.

ORTHOGRAPHY

Shalāmi uses an Arabic-inspired script, with each phoneme represented by a unique character. The orthography is largely phonemic, with a close correspondence between sounds and symbols. Some notable features include:

• Vowel length is not distinguished in writing.
• Nasal vowels are marked with a superscript alif (ٰ).
• The script is written from right to left.

MORPHOSYNTAX

Shalāmi exhibits a mix of agglutinative and fusional morphology. Key features include:

1. Nominal marking:
      • Number: Singular (-et) and plural (-u) suffixes
      • No case marking

1. Verbal marking:
      • Tense-aspect: Suffixes for nonpast (-ɥat), immediate past (-ɛn), recent past (-em), and remote past (-ka)
      • Person agreement: Ergative-absolutive alignment with suffixes for person and number

1. Other features:
      • Inclusive-exclusive distinction in first person plural pronouns
      • No grammatical gender
      • Numeral classifiers

Derivational morphology includes suffixes for comparatives (-kas) and superlatives (-e).

SYNTAX

Shalāmi has a relatively rare Object-Verb-Subject (OVS) word order for main clauses. Other syntactic features include:

• Adjective-Noun order: Adjectives precede the nouns they modify
• Adposition-Noun order: Prepositions are used rather than postpositions
• Relative clauses are formed using the suffix -ɛ on the verb

The language uses postverbal negation with the suffix -œs.

EXAMPLE TEXT

Here are a few examples from the provided text, showcasing various features of Shalāmi:

1. وادي سعسٱ کاس نيزەەت پۆرە بلفٱر گردٱرەت درتان سەرۆۆاتەع سەرۆۆاتە
   wa.di sɛ.sə kas ni.ze-et pø.ʁe blfəʁ gʁdəʁ-et dʁtan se.ʁy-ɥat-e-ɛ se.ʁy-ɥat-e .
   the smart COMP student-SING in our school-SING he be-NPAST-3SG-REL be-NPAST-3SG .
   "The smartest student in our school is he."

1. کلنيم وادي گلپەنو پۆرە تعدە وادي گرژعٰمو سپتۅسۆاترٱم
   klnim wa.di glpen-u pø.ʁe tɛ.de wa.di gʁʒɛ̃m-u sptɔs-ɥat-ʁəm .
   from the tree-PLUR in autumn the leaf-PLUR fall-NPAST-3PL .
   "From the trees in autumn, the leaves fall."

1. وودي لعپو ساتا کاڽيۏس سننۆکۆاتيەک
   wo.di lɛ.po sa.ta ka.ɲi-œs snnøk-ɥat-jek .
   very well i swim-NEG can-NPAST-1SG .
   "Very well I cannot swim."

This example illustrates the use of negation (-œs) and first person singular agreement in the nonpast tense (-ɥat-jek).

LEXICON

A small sample of the Shalāmi lexicon:

PHONOLOGY

Cyrillic has a rich phonemic inventory consisting of 20 consonants and 14 vowels:

The language features both oral and nasal vowels, as well as rounded front vowels (y, œ, ø). The consonant inventory includes the uvular fricative /ʁ/ and the palatal nasal /ɲ/, giving the language a somewhat French-like quality in its phonology.

ORTHOGRAPHY

Cyrillic uses a modified Cyrillic alphabet for its orthography. Some notable correspondences include:

• /ɥ/ is represented by ю
• /w/ is represented by ў
• /ə/ is represented by ъ
• /ɛ/ is represented by э
• /œ/ is represented by ё
• /ɔ/ is represented by ѳ
• /ɑ̃/ is represented by ѧ
• /ɔ̃/ is represented by ѫ
• /ɛ̃/ is represented by ѩ
• /ø/ is represented by ѳ

This orthography allows for a unique visual representation of the language while maintaining a connection to Cyrillic-using cultures.

MORPHOSYNTAX

Cyrillic exhibits an ergative-absolutive alignment in its verbal morphology. The language marks tense-aspect through suffixes, with four distinctions: nonpast, immediate past, recent past, and remote past.

Nouns are marked for number (singular and plural) but not for case. The language features an inclusive-exclusive distinction in first-person plural pronouns.

Verbal agreement is complex, with markers for both ergative and absolutive arguments:

• Ergative markers: -йек (1SG), -ѳ (2SG), -е (3SG), -бен (1PL), -ръм (3PL)
• Absolutive markers are not explicitly shown in the provided examples

Other notable morphological features include:

• Relative clause marker: -э
• Negation marker: -ёс
• Comparative: кас
• Equative: ас
• Superlative: е

SYNTAX

Cyrillic has an unusual Object-Verb-Subject (OVS) main word order, which is relatively rare among the world's languages. Adjectives precede nouns (AN), and the language uses prepositions (PN).

EXAMPLE TEXT

Here are a few examples from the provided text:

1. Ўади сэсъ кас низеет пѳре блфър грдърет дртан серыюатеэ серыюате.
   the smart COMP student-SING in our school-SING he be-NPAST-3SG-REL be-NPAST-3SG
   "He is the smartest student in our school."
2. Клним ўади глпену пѳре тэде ўади гржѩму сптѳсюатръм.
   from the tree-PLUR in autumn the leaf-PLUR fall-NPAST-3PL
   "The leaves fall from the trees in autumn."
3. Нёру снкър ѳкыты вртефѩет дрнѫл ўаса флкесет рим смсанембен тррал блпик.
   with a different contractor-SING for this project-SING 1PLEXCL decide-RECPAST-1PL to go
   "We decided to go with a different contractor for this project."

These examples showcase the OVS word order, the use of case markers and tense-aspect suffixes, and the inclusive-exclusive distinction in pronouns.

LEXICON

A small sample of the lexicon:

блпик - go
врнар - enough
гѳма - today
дрнэт - new
кањи - swim
лэпо - well
низе - student
пѳре - in
рэтъ - phone
сата - I
тэже - want
флвѳс - live

PHONOLOGY

Aetherios has a rich phonemic inventory consisting of 20 consonants and 14 vowels:

The language features both oral and nasal vowels, as well as rounded and unrounded front vowels. The consonant inventory includes a uvular fricative /ʁ/ and a labio-palatal approximant /ɥ/, which are relatively uncommon cross-linguistically.

ORTHOGRAPHY

Aetherios uses a modified Greek alphabet for its orthography. Some notable features include:

• The use of 'ου' to represent /u/
• Diacritics to represent different vowel qualities (e.g., 'ε̆' for /ə/, 'ο̈' for /œ/)
• The use of 'ς' for /ʃ/ and 'ζ̧' for /ʒ/
• Nasal vowels represented by adding a tilde to the vowel (e.g., 'α̃' for /ɑ̃/)

This orthography allows for a unique visual representation of the language while maintaining a connection to the Greek alphabet.

MORPHOSYNTAX

Aetherios exhibits a rich morphological system with several notable features:

1. Nominal marking:
      • Singular and plural number distinctions
      • No grammatical case system

1. Verbal marking:
      • Four-way tense distinction: nonpast, immediate past, recent past, and remote past
      • Tense is marked by suffixes
      • Person agreement for both ergative and absolutive arguments

1. Inclusive-exclusive distinction in first-person plural pronouns

1. No grammatical gender

1. Numeral classifiers are used with numbers

Verbs are heavily marked, carrying information about tense, person, and number. For example:

SYNTAX

Aetherios has an OVS (Object-Verb-Subject) main word order, which is relatively rare among the world's languages. This creates sentences like:

Other syntactic features include:

• Adjective-Noun order (AN)
• Preposition-Noun order (PN)

These features combine to create a unique syntactic structure that sets Aetherios apart from many natural languages.

EXAMPLE TEXT

Here are a few examples from the provided text, showcasing various features of Aetherios:

1. Ωαδι σεσε̆ κασ νιζεετ πο̊ρε βλφε̆ρ γρδε̆ρετ δρταν σερυῠατεε σερυῠατε.
   wa.di sɛ.sə kas ni.ze-et pø.ʁe blfəʁ gʁdəʁ-et dʁtan se.ʁy-ɥat-e-ɛ se.ʁy-ɥat-e
   the smart COMP student-SING in our school-SING he be-NPAST-3SG-REL be-NPAST-3SG
   "He is the smartest student in our school."

This example showcases the OVS word order, the comparative marker 'κασ', and the relative clause construction.

1. Κλνιμ ωαδι γλπενου πο̊ρε τεδε ωαδι γρζ̧ε̃μου σπτοσῠατρε̆μ.
   klnim wa.di glpen-u pø.ʁe tɛ.de wa.di gʁʒɛ̃m-u sptɔs-ɥat-ʁəm
   from the tree-PLUR in autumn the leaf-PLUR fall-NPAST-3PL
   "The leaves fall from the trees in autumn."

This sentence demonstrates the use of plural marking, prepositions, and verb agreement with a plural subject.

1. Νο̈ρου σνκε̆ρ ζενο γλδεσετ ωαδι λε̆μεετ βρφο̊μ πλσερεμε.
   nœ.ʁu snkəʁ zɛ.nɔ gldes-et wa.di lə.me-et vʁføm plseʁ-em-e
   with a blue pen-SING the letter-SING she write-RECPAST-3SG
   "She wrote the letter with a blue pen."

This example shows the use of the instrumental preposition, adjective-noun order, and recent past tense marking.

LEXICON

A small sample of the Aetherios lexicon:

This lexicon showcases some of the basic vocabulary and grammatical particles used in Aetherios, reflecting its unique phonological and orthographic systems.

PHONOLOGY

Sérulang has a rich phonological inventory with 20 consonants and 14 vowels:

The language features both oral and nasal vowels, as well as rounded front vowels (y, ø, œ) which are typologically less common. The consonant inventory includes the uvular fricative /ʁ/ and the labio-palatal approximant /ɥ/, adding to the language's distinctive sound.

ORTHOGRAPHY

Sérulang uses a Latin-based alphabet with some digraphs and diacritics:

MORPHOSYNTAX

Sérulang exhibits a rich morphological system, particularly in its verbal inflections:

1. Nominal marking:
      • Number: Singular (-ét) and Plural (-ou) suffixes
      • No case marking

1. Verbal marking:
      • Tense-aspect: Nonpast (-üat), Immediate past (-èn), Recent past (-ém), Remote past (-ca)
      • Person agreement: Ergative-Absolutive alignment Ergative suffixes: -yéc (1SG), -o (2SG), -é (3SG), -bén (1PL), -rem (3PL) Absolutive suffixes are not explicitly shown in the examples

1. Other morphemes:
      • Negation: -eus
      • Relative clause marker: -è

1. Inclusive-Exclusive distinction: 1PLINCL: cheu 1PLEXCL: rim

1. No grammatical gender

1. Numeral classifiers are used, but not shown in the provided examples

SYNTAX

Sérulang has the following word order characteristics:

1. Main clause order: OVS (Object-Verb-Subject)
2. Adjective-Noun order: AN (Adjective precedes Noun)
3. Adposition-Noun order: PN (Preposition precedes Noun)

This combination of word orders is typologically rare, making Sérulang quite distinctive in its syntax.

EXAMPLE TEXT

Here are a few examples from the provided text, with orthographic transcription, gloss, and English translation:

1. Wadi sèse cas nizéét peuré blfer grderét drtan séruüatéè séruüaté.
   the smart COMP student-SING in our school-SING he be-NPAST-3SG-REL be-NPAST-3SG
   "The smartest student in our school is he."
2. Clnim wadi glpénou peuré tèdé wadi grjinmou sptosüatrem.
   from the tree-PLUR in autumn the leaf-PLUR fall-NPAST-3PL
   "From the trees in autumn, the leaves fall."
3. Trral prgnal tayiét prgnal scderét drtan tivoémé.
   to his cousin-SING his bicycle-SING he lend-RECPAST-3SG
   "To his cousin, his bicycle he lent."

These examples demonstrate the OVS word order, the use of tense-aspect suffixes, and the placement of prepositions before nouns.

LEXICON

A small sample of the Sérulang lexicon:

blpic: go
séru: be
wadi: the
sncer: a
cas: COMP (comparative)
as: EQU (equative)
é: SUP (superlative)
peuré: in
trral: to
neurou: with
tédo: but
toucè: and
clnim: from
blvèt: on

PHONOLOGY

Zuhkari has a relatively simple phonological system consisting of 16 consonants and 5 vowels:

The language allows for both open and closed syllables, with a preference for CV structure. Consonant clusters are permitted but generally limited to two consonants. Stress typically falls on the penultimate syllable.

ORTHOGRAPHY

Zuhkari uses a modified Arabic script for its writing system. Consonants are represented by Arabic letters, while vowels are indicated by diacritical marks above or below the consonants. Some notable features include:

• The use of پ (pe) for /p/, چ (che) for /tʃ/, and غ (ghain) for /g/
• Short vowels are represented by diacritics: َ (fatha) for /a/, ُ (damma) for /o/, ِ (kasra) for /i/, ٜ for /e/, and ٗ for /u/
• Word-initial vowels are carried by alif (ا)

This orthography allows for a compact writing system that reflects the phonological structure of the language.

MORPHOSYNTAX

Zuhkari exhibits a mix of agglutinative and fusional morphology. Key features include:

1. Nominal marking:
      • Number: Singular (-a) and plural (-son) suffixes
      • No case marking on nouns

1. Verbal marking:
      • Tense-aspect: Non-past (-re), immediate past (-ni), recent past (-u), remote past (-o) suffixes
      • Person agreement: Ergative-absolutive alignment with suffixes (e.g., -ho for 1SG, -ron for 3SG)
      • Negation: Suffix -go

1. Inclusive-exclusive distinction in first person plural pronouns:
      • 1PLINCL: a
      • 1PLEXCL: son

1. Other notable morphemes:
      • Relative clause marker: -i
      • Comparative: em
      • Superlative: e
      • Plural: -son

SYNTAX

Zuhkari follows an OVS (Object-Verb-Subject) word order for main clauses, which is relatively rare among the world's languages. Other syntactic features include:

1. Adjective-Noun order: Adjectives precede the nouns they modify (AN)
2. Adposition-Noun order: Prepositions are used (PN)
3. Relative clauses: Marked with the suffix -i on the verb and typically follow the noun they modify
4. Question formation: Primarily through intonation, with question words remaining in situ
5. Coordination: Conjunctions like "kusa" (and) join clauses or phrases

EXAMPLE TEXT

Here are a few examples from the provided text, showcasing various aspects of Zuhkari grammar:

1. ُغٜز ٜكَز ٜم ٗوَكاَ ٜچٜت ٜتٜه ُكٜناَ ٜتاَُي ٗكُهٜرُرِن ٗكُهٜرُرن
   go.ze ke.za me wu.ka-a tʃe.te te.he ko.ne-a teajo ku.ho-re-ron-i ku.ho-re-ron
   the smart COMP student-SING in our school-SING he be-NPAST-3SG-REL be-NPAST-3SG
   "The smartest student in our school is he."
2. ٜهٜن ُغٜز ٗسُتُسن ٜچٜت ِسُن ُغٜز َكُمُسن ٗسٗهٜرَت
   he.ne go.ze su.to-son tʃe.te si.no go.ze ka.mo-son su.hu-re-ta
   from the tree-PLUR in autumn the leaf-PLUR fall-NPAST-3PL
   "From the trees in autumn, the leaves fall."
3. ِتَت ُيٗن ٜسَتٜو ِچَمِداَ ٗوٜغ ِكُس ُدٗكاَ ُسن ُغِداٗاَ ُنٜر ٜغَك
   ti.ta jo.nu se.tawe tʃi.ma.di-a wu.ge ki.so do.ku-a son go.di-u-a no.re ge.ka
   with a different contractor-SING for this project-SING 1PLEXCL decide-RECPAST-1PL to go
   "With a different contractor for this project, we (excl.) decided to go."

These examples demonstrate the OVS word order, use of case markers, tense-aspect suffixes, and the inclusive-exclusive distinction in pronouns.

LEXICON

A small sample of the Zuhkari lexicon:

ُغٜز (go.ze) - the
ٜكَز (ke.za) - smart
ٗوَك (wu.ka) - student
ُكٜن (ko.ne) - school
ٗكُه (ku.ho) - to be
ٜغَك (ge.ka) - to go
َنِه (na.hi) - to need
ٜتُك (te.ko) - to want
َنٗغ (na.gu) - to like
ُسُه (su.ho) - to see
َپٗس (pa.su) - to eat
ٗكَن (ku.na) - to live
ِنُك (ni.ko) - to have
ُسن (son) - 1PLEXCL (we, exclusive)
اَ (a) - 1PLINCL (we, inclusive)

PHONOLOGY

Kuhoran has a relatively simple phonological system consisting of 16 consonants and 5 vowels:

The language allows for both open and closed syllables, with a preference for CV structure. Consonant clusters are permitted but generally limited to two consonants. The phonotactics favor alternating consonants and vowels, giving the language a rhythmic quality.

ORTHOGRAPHY

Kuhoran uses a modified Cyrillic alphabet for its orthography. Each phoneme corresponds to a single Cyrillic letter:

This orthography provides a one-to-one correspondence between sounds and symbols, making the writing system highly phonemic and easy to learn.

MORPHOSYNTAX

Kuhoran exhibits an ergative-absolutive alignment in its verbal morphology. The language marks tense-aspect through suffixes on the verb, with four distinctions: nonpast (-ре), immediate past (-ни), recent past (-у), and remote past (-о).

Person and number are marked on the verb through suffixes:
- First person singular: -хо
- Second person singular: -сун
- Third person singular: -рон
- First person plural: -а
- Third person plural: -та

The language distinguishes between inclusive and exclusive first person plural pronouns: 'а' for inclusive and 'сон' for exclusive.

Nouns are marked for number with -а for singular and -сон for plural. There is no grammatical gender or case marking on nouns.

Additional morphological features include:
- Negation suffix: -го
- Relative clause marker: -и
- Comparative marker: ме
- Superlative marker: е

Kuhoran uses numeral classifiers, which are placed between the noun and the number.

SYNTAX

Kuhoran follows an Object-Verb-Subject (OVS) word order for main clauses. This relatively rare word order gives the language a distinct character. Adjectives precede the nouns they modify (AN), and prepositions are used before noun phrases (PN).

Relative clauses are formed using the suffix -и on the verb of the relative clause. The relative clause typically follows the noun it modifies.

Questions are formed by intonation rather than word order change, with question words remaining in situ.

EXAMPLE TEXT

Here are a few examples from the provided text:

1. Гозе кеза ме ўукаа чете техе конеа теайо кухорерони кухорерон.
   go.ze ke.za me wu.ka-a tʃe.te te.he ko.ne-a teajo ku.ho-re-ron-i ku.ho-re-ron
   "The smart COMP student-SING in our school-SING he be-NPAST-3SG-REL be-NPAST-3SG"
   Translation: "He is the smartest student in our school."
2. Тинда хоса гозе казуа кемурерон.
   ti.nda ho.sa go.ze ka.zu-a ke.mu-re-ron
   "strongly today the wind-SING blow-NPAST-3SG"
   Translation: "The wind is blowing strongly today."
3. Норе йону шоке негаа сон рагиреа, таке паку ўере гизираа кагорерон.
   no.re jo.nu ʃo.ke ne.ga-a son ra.gi-re-a , ta.ke pa.ku we.re gi.zi.ra-a ka.go-re-ron
   "to a new office-SING 1PLEXCL move-NPAST-1PL , but here your department-SING stay-NPAST-3SG"
   Translation: "We are moving to a new office, but your department is staying here."

LEXICON

A small sample of the Kuhoran lexicon:

PHONOLOGY

Hellenikos has a relatively simple phonological system consisting of 16 consonants and 5 vowels:

The phonotactics seem to favor CV syllable structure, though CVC and VC structures are also present.

ORTHOGRAPHY

Hellenikos uses a modified Greek alphabet for its orthography. Some key features include:

• Most letters correspond directly to their IPA equivalents (e.g., κ = /k/, σ = /s/)
• The letter 'ς' represents /ʃ/
• The digraph 'τς' represents /tʃ/
• 'ι' represents both /i/ and /j/
• 'ω' represents /w/

Some special orthographic rules:
- 'ου' represents /ou/
- 'εα' represents /ea/
- 'αν' represents /anh/ when followed by 'h'

This orthography allows for a clear representation of the language's phonology while maintaining a connection to the Greek alphabet.

MORPHOSYNTAX

Hellenikos exhibits a rich morphological system, particularly in its verbal morphology:

1. Nominal Marking:
      • Number: Singular (-α) and Plural (-σον)
      • No case marking

1. Verbal Marking:
      • Tense-Aspect: Non-past (-ρε), Immediate past (-νι), Recent past (-υ), Remote past (-ο)
      • Person agreement: 1SG (-χο), 2SG (-συν), 3SG (-ρον), 1PL (-α), 3PL (-τα)
      • Other markers: Negative (-γο), Relative (-ι)

1. Inclusive-Exclusive Distinction:
      • 1PLEXCL: σον
      • 1PLINCL: α

1. No grammatical gender

1. Classifiers: The language uses classifiers, though specific examples are not provided in the lexicon.

1. Comparison:
      • Comparative: με
      • Equative: α
      • Superlative: ε

SYNTAX

Hellenikos has the following word order characteristics:

1. Main clause order: OVS (Object-Verb-Subject) Example: γοζε καζυα κεμυρερον τινδα χοσα. "the wind blows strongly today" (lit. "the wind-SING blow-NPAST-3SG strongly today")

1. Adjective-Noun order: AN (Adjective before Noun) Example: κεζα ωυκα "smart student"

1. Adposition-Noun order: PN (Preposition before Noun) Example: τςετε γοζε ναγοα "in the park"

Other syntactic features:
- Relative clauses are marked with the suffix -ι on the verb
- Negation is expressed through the verbal suffix -γο
- Questions are formed by intonation, without changing word order

EXAMPLE TEXT

Here are a few examples from the provided text, with orthography, gloss, and English translation:

1. Γοζε κεζα με ωυκαα τςετε τεχε κονεα τεαιο κυχορερονι κυχορερον.
   the smart COMP student-SING in our school-SING he be-NPAST-3SG-REL be-NPAST-3SG
   "He is the smartest student in our school."
2. Τινδα χοσα γοζε καζυα κεμυρερον.
   strongly today the wind-SING blow-NPAST-3SG
   "The wind blows strongly today."
3. Νορε δυτι χεσεα δυτι δασυα τεαιο τατςευρον.
   to his cousin-SING his bicycle-SING he lend-RECPAST-3SG
   "He lent his bicycle to his cousin."
4. Βατςο μαγεα ωερο ναγυγορερον.
   spicy food-SING she like-NEG-NPAST-3SG
   "She doesn't like spicy food."
5. Ιονυ νατε κεσια νικι κυχορεσυν, νισι νινι ναχιρεχο τςαγε πασι ςοπο.
   a true friend-SING thou be-NPAST-2SG, when i need-NPAST-1SG thee always there
   "You are a true friend, always there when I need you."

LEXICON

A small sample of the lexicon:

Adjectives:
κεζα - smart
βατςο - spicy
νατε - true

Adverbs:
τινδα - strongly
πασι - always

Pronouns:
τεαιο - he
ωερο - she
νικι - thou (you singular)
νινι - I

Prepositions:
τςετε - in
νορε - to

PHONOLOGY

Zohulang has a relatively simple phonological system consisting of 16 consonants and 5 vowels:

The language allows for both open and closed syllables, with a preference for CV structure. Consonant clusters are limited, primarily occurring across syllable boundaries.

ORTHOGRAPHY

Zohulang uses a modified Latin alphabet. Most sounds correspond directly to their IPA equivalents, with a few exceptions:

• /k/ is written as 'c'
• /ʃ/ is written as 'sh'
• /tʃ/ is written as 'ch'
• /j/ is written as 'y'

There is one special orthographic rule for vowel combinations:
- The sequence 'ou' represents /o u/

MORPHOSYNTAX

Zohulang exhibits an agglutinative morphology with a rich system of suffixes. Key features include:

1. Nominal marking:
      • Number: Singular (-a) and Plural (-son)
      • No case marking

1. Verbal marking:
      • Tense-aspect: Non-past (-re), Immediate past (-ni), Recent past (-u), Remote past (-o)
      • Person agreement: Ergative-Absolutive alignment 1SG: -ho, 2SG: -sun, 3SG: -ron, 1PL: -a, 3PL: -ta
      • Other verbal suffixes: Negative (-go), Relative clause marker (-i)

1. Inclusive-Exclusive distinction in first person plural:
      • 1PLINCL: a
      • 1PLEXCL: son

1. No grammatical gender

1. Numeral classifiers are used, though specific examples are not provided in the lexicon

Other notable morphemes:
- Comparative: me
- Equative: a
- Superlative: e

SYNTAX

Zohulang has an OVS (Object-Verb-Subject) main word order, which is typologically rare. Other word order features include:

• Adjective-Noun (AN): Adjectives precede the nouns they modify
• Preposition-Noun (PN): Prepositions come before their object nouns

The language uses postpositions for subordinate clauses, as evidenced by the relative clause marker -i appearing at the end of the verb.

EXAMPLE TEXT

Here are two example sentences from the provided text:

1. Goze ceza me wucaa chete tehe conea teayo cuhoreroni cuhoreron.
   the smart COMP student-SING in our school-SING he be-NPAST-3SG-REL be-NPAST-3SG
   "The smart student in our school is he."
2. Tinda hosa goze cazua cemureron.
   strongly today the wind-SING blow-NPAST-3SG
   "The wind blows strongly today."
3. Nore yonu shoce negaa son ragirea, tace pacu were giziraa cagoreron.
   to a new office-SING 1PLEXCL move-NPAST-1PL, but here your department-SING stay-NPAST-3SG
   "We are moving to a new office, but your department is staying here."

These examples demonstrate the OVS word order, the use of suffixes for tense and person agreement, and the placement of adjectives before nouns.

LEXICON

A small sample of the Zohulang lexicon:

Nouns:
wuca - student
cone - school
cazu - wind
nega - office
gizira - department

Verbs:
cuho - be
cemu - blow
ragi - move
cago - stay

Adjectives:
ceza - smart
shoce - new

Adverbs:
tinda - strongly

Pronouns:
teayo - he
son - we (exclusive)
were - your

Other:
chete - in
tace - but
nore - to
goze - the
yonu - a

PHONOLOGY

Sanalang has a relatively simple phonological system consisting of 20 consonants and 5 vowels:

Syllable structure appears to be primarily CV, though some consonant clusters are permitted.

ORTHOGRAPHY

Sanalang uses an Arabic-inspired script for its writing system. Each phoneme is represented by a unique character:

Vowels:
a ا, e ە, i ی, o ۆ, u و

The script is written from right to left, following the Arabic tradition. Diacritical marks are not used, making the script relatively simple to learn and use.

MORPHOSYNTAX

Sanalang exhibits a rich morphological system, particularly in its verbal inflections:

1. Nouns:
      • Number: Singular (-nۆ) and plural (-ری) markers
      • No case marking

1. Verbs:
      • Tense-aspect: Non-past (-سا), immediate past (-رۆ), recent past (-سا), remote past (-سی)
      • Person agreement: 1SG (-دۆ), 2SG (-لی), 3SG (-سۆ), 1PL (-را), 3PL (-نۆس)
      • Other markers: Relative clause (-لەس), Negative (-ران)

1. Pronouns:
      • Inclusive/exclusive distinction in first person plural (1PLINCL سی, 1PLEXCL نەر)

1. Adjectives:
      • Comparative (رە), Equative (رۆ), and Superlative (نا) forms

1. Numeral classifiers are used, though specific forms are not provided in the lexicon.

SYNTAX

Sanalang follows an Object-Verb-Subject (OVS) word order for main clauses, which is relatively rare among the world's languages. Other syntactic features include:

1. Adjective-Noun (AN) order
2. Preposition-Noun (PN) order
3. Relative clauses are formed using the suffix -لەس on the verb

EXAMPLE TEXT

Here are a few example sentences from the provided text, showcasing various aspects of Sanalang grammar:

1. سۆدی دەنۆ رە ەسسانۆ سۆلۆ ۆبرۆ سۆنانۆ وگنا نۆساساسۆلەس نۆساساسۆ
   so.di de.no ɾe es.sa-no so.lo ob.ɾo so.na-no ug.na no.sa-sa-so-les no.sa-sa-so
   the smart COMP student-SING in our school-SING he be-NPAST-3SG-REL be-NPAST-3SG
   "He is the smartest student in our school."
2. سۆلۆ سۆدی ارنونۆ سۆدی ەبداری نۆنەسانۆس
   so.lo so.di aɾ.nu-no so.di eb.da-ɾi no.ne-sa-nos
   in the park-SING the child-PLUR play-RECPAST-3PL
   "The children played in the park."
3. نۆلۆ ەرنا سەنو سۆدی ەترانۆ سالاساسۆ
   no.lo eɾ.na se.nu so.di et.ɾa-no sa.la-sa-so
   at eight o'clock the movie-SING start-NPAST-3SG
   "The movie starts at eight o'clock."

These examples demonstrate the OVS word order, noun and verb inflections, and the use of postpositions.

LEXICON

A small sample of the Sanalang lexicon:

ەندە (en.de) - go
نۆسا (no.sa) - be
ەسسا (es.sa) - student
سۆنا (so.na) - school
ەترا (et.ɾa) - movie
ارنو (aɾ.nu) - park
ەبدا (eb.da) - child
دەنۆ (de.no) - smart
ۆبرۆ (ob.ɾo) - our
سۆدی (so.di) - the
سۆلۆ (so.lo) - in
نۆلۆ (no.lo) - at

This lexicon showcases some of the basic vocabulary of Sanalang, including nouns, verbs, adjectives, and grammatical particles.

PHONOLOGY

Nerusan has a phoneme inventory consisting of 20 consonants and 5 vowels:

The vowel system is a standard five-vowel system common in many languages.

ORTHOGRAPHY

Nerusan uses a Cyrillic-inspired script. Some key correspondences:

• /θ/ is written as ѳ
• /ɲ/ as њ
• /ʎ/ as љ
• /r/ (trill) as р̃
• /ʝ/ as ј

Most other sounds use their closest Cyrillic equivalent. This orthography allows Nerusan to have a distinct visual identity while maintaining some familiarity for readers of Cyrillic-using languages.

MORPHOSYNTAX

Nerusan exhibits an ergative-absolutive alignment in its verbal morphology. Verbs agree with both the ergative and absolutive arguments through suffixes.

Tense is marked through suffixes with four distinctions:
- Nonpast (-са)
- Immediate past (-ро)
- Recent past (-са)
- Remote past (-си)

Number is marked on nouns with singular (-но) and plural (-ри) suffixes.

Other notable morphological features include:
- Comparative (ре) and superlative (на) markers
- A relative clause marker (-лес)
- A negation suffix (-ран)

Nerusan uses numeral classifiers, though the specific classifiers are not detailed in the provided information.

SYNTAX

Nerusan has an OVS (Object-Verb-Subject) main word order, which is relatively rare among the world's languages. This can be seen in sentences like:

Adjectives precede the nouns they modify (AN order):

Adpositions precede their noun complements (PN order):

EXAMPLE TEXT

Here are a few example sentences from the provided text:

1. Соди дено ре ессано соло обро сонано угна носасасолес носасасо.
   the smart COMP student-SING in our school-SING he be-NPAST-3SG-REL be-NPAST-3SG
   "He is the smartest student in our school."
2. Лодо соди ринири соло ойни соди утлари унносанос.
   from the tree-PLUR in autumn the leaf-PLUR fall-NPAST-3PL
   "The leaves fall from the trees in autumn."
3. Амло нани серо едноно соди ефдоно упда насесасо.
   with a blue pen-SING the letter-SING she write-RECPAST-3SG
   "She wrote the letter with a blue pen."

These examples showcase the OVS word order, the use of case markers, and the tense-aspect system of Nerusan.

LEXICON

A small sample of the Nerusan lexicon:

носа - be
енде - go
нале - see
рира - like
епса - eat
насе - write
урла - use
ридо - want/stay
сала - start
нера - need

Pronouns:
ерно - I
рили - thou
угна - he
упда - she
си - we (inclusive)
нер - we (exclusive)

Nouns often end in -но (singular) or -ри (plural), while verbs typically end in -а in their base form.

PHONOLOGY

Neosyllabic has a relatively simple phonological system consisting of 20 consonants and 5 vowels:

The vowel system is a standard five-vowel system common to many languages worldwide.

ORTHOGRAPHY

Neosyllabic uses a modified Greek alphabet for its orthography. Some key correspondences include:

• ου represents /u/
• τσ represents /tʃ/
• νι represents /ɲ/
• λι represents /ʎ/
• ρρ represents /r/ (trill)
• γι represents /ʝ/

The orthography is largely phonemic, with each sound having a unique representation. One notable rule is the use of final ς instead of σ at the end of words.

MORPHOSYNTAX

Neosyllabic has a rich system of verbal morphology but relatively simple nominal morphology.

Nouns are marked for number (singular -νο, plural -ρι) but not for case.

Verbs are marked for tense-aspect and person agreement. The tense-aspect system includes:

• Non-past (-σα)
• Immediate past (-ρο)
• Recent past (-σα)
• Remote past (-σι)

Person agreement is marked for both subject and object, following an ergative-absolutive pattern:

Subject (ergative):
1SG: -δο, 2SG: -λι, 3SG: -σο, 1PL: -ρα, 3PL: -νος

Object (absolutive):
1SG: -δο, 2SG: -λι, 3SG: -σο, 1PL: -ρα, 3PL: -νος

Other notable morphemes include:
- Negation: -ραν
- Relative clause marker: -λες

The language distinguishes between inclusive (σι) and exclusive (νερ) first person plural pronouns.

Neosyllabic uses numeral classifiers, which are placed between the noun and the number.

SYNTAX

Neosyllabic has an unusual Object-Verb-Subject (OVS) word order for main clauses. This is a rare word order, found in only about 1% of the world's languages.

Adjectives precede the nouns they modify (AN order), and adpositions precede their noun phrases (PN order).

EXAMPLE TEXT

Here are a few example sentences from the provided text:

1. Σοδι δενο ρε εσσανο σολο οβρο σονανο ουγνα νοσασασολες νοσασασο.
   so.di de.no ɾe es.sa-no so.lo ob.ɾo so.na-no ug.na no.sa-sa-so-les no.sa-sa-so .
   the smart COMP student-SING in our school-SING he be-NPAST-3SG-REL be-NPAST-3SG .
   "The smartest student in our school is he."
2. Σοδι νασδι να εγιρανο ερνο οσνισαδολες ουνλα νοσασασο.
   so.di nas.di na eʝ.ɾa-no eɾ.no os.ni-sa-do-les un.la no.sa-sa-so .
   the delicious SUP cake-SING i taste-RECPAST-1SG-REL this be-NPAST-3SG .
   "This is the most delicious cake I have tasted."
3. Νασα δουσινο ουπδα ριραρανσασο.
   na.sa du.si-no up.da ɾi.ɾa-ɾan-sa-so .
   spicy food-SING she like-NEG-NPAST-3SG .
   "Spicy food, she doesn't like."

These examples showcase the OVS word order, the use of superlatives (να), and the negation marker (-ραν).

LEXICON

A small sample of the Neosyllabic lexicon:

νερ - 1PLEXCL (we, exclusive)
σι - 1PLINCL (we, inclusive)
ρε - COMP (comparative)
ρο - EQU (equative)
να - SUP (superlative)
νανι - a
ουιδε - address
ερδα - always
εσρι - and
ραδου - as
νολο - at
αλλι - attic
οινι - autumn
αρνο - backyard
ραλα - bake
νοσα - be
σοσο - bicycle
ετνε - bloom
σασα - blow
σερο - blue

PHONOLOGY

Nerosian has a relatively simple phonological system consisting of 20 consonants and 5 vowels:

The language includes some less common sounds like the palatal nasal ɲ, the palatal lateral approximant ʎ, and the voiced palatal fricative ʝ. It distinguishes between a tap ɾ and a trill r.

Syllable structure appears to be (C)V(C), allowing both open and closed syllables.

ORTHOGRAPHY

Nerosian uses a Latin-based alphabet with some modifications:

• ɲ is written as ñ
• ʎ is written as ll
• ɾ is written as r
• r (trill) is written as rr
• j is written as y
• ʝ is written as j
• x is written as ch
• θ is written as th
• tʃ is written as tch

Other sounds are written as in the IPA. This orthography allows for a relatively close correspondence between pronunciation and spelling.

MORPHOSYNTAX

Nerosian exhibits an ergative-absolutive alignment in its verbal morphology. Verbs agree with both the ergative and absolutive arguments through suffixes.

Tense is marked on verbs with the following suffixes:
- -sa: Non-past/Recent past
- -ro: Immediate past
- -si: Remote past

Person agreement suffixes:
- -do: 1SG
- -li: 2SG
- -so: 3SG
- -ra: 1PL
- -nos: 3PL

Other verbal suffixes include:
- -ran: Negative
- -les: Relative clause marker

Nouns are marked for number:
- -no: Singular
- -ri: Plural

Nerosian distinguishes between inclusive and exclusive first person plural pronouns:
- ner: 1PL exclusive
- si: 1PL inclusive

The language uses comparative and superlative particles:
- re: Comparative
- ro: Equative
- na: Superlative

Nerosian employs numeral classifiers, though the specific classifiers are not provided in the given information.

SYNTAX

Nerosian has an OVS (Object-Verb-Subject) main word order, which is relatively rare among the world's languages. It uses prepositions (PN order) and places adjectives before nouns (AN order).

EXAMPLE TEXT

Here are a few examples from the provided text:

1. Sodi deno re essano solo obro sonano ugna nosasasoles nosasaso.
   the smart COMP student-SING in our school-SING he be-NPAST-3SG-REL be-NPAST-3SG
   "The smartest student in our school is he."
2. Lodo sodi riniri solo oyni sodi utlari unnosanos.
   from the tree-PLUR in autumn the leaf-PLUR fall-NPAST-3PL
   "From the trees in autumn, the leaves fall."
3. Amlo nani sero ednono sodi efdono upda nasesaso.
   with a blue pen-SING the letter-SING she write-RECPAST-3SG
   "With a blue pen, she wrote the letter."
4. Nani sela nilino rili nosasali, sura erno nerasado alle erda amnu.
   a true friend-SING thou be-NPAST-2SG, when i need-NPAST-1SG thee always there
   "You are a true friend, always there when I need you."

LEXICON

A small selection from the lexicon:

nosa: be
ende: go
rasi: have
nale: see
epsa: eat
rira: like
nera: need
sela: plant, true
nosi: discover
omni: build
asli: melt
nuro: run
ipna: swim
rala: bake
nanu: elect

Pronouns:
erno: I
rili: thou
ugna: he
upda: she
ner: we (exclusive)
si: we (inclusive)

Numbers:
orrla: one
issu: two
erna: eight

Time:
insa: today
ursa: year
sali: week
urro: month

PHONOLOGY

Shalāmik has a rich phonemic inventory consisting of 26 consonants and 15 vowels:

ORTHOGRAPHY

Shalāmik uses a modified Arabic script for its orthography. Some notable features include:

1. Vowels are fully represented, unlike in standard Arabic orthography.
2. New characters have been introduced for sounds not present in Arabic, such as ڭ for /ŋ/ and ڵ for /ɬ/.
3. Diacritics are used to distinguish between similar sounds, e.g., ڕ for /r̥/ vs. ر for /r/.

MORPHOSYNTAX

Shalāmik exhibits a rich morphological system with several notable features:

1. Noun Number: Marked by suffixes -سىچ (-sɨtʃ) for singular and -يە (-jɛ) for plural.

1. Verb Tense: Four tenses marked by suffixes:
      • Non-past: -شۆر (-ʃor)
      • Immediate past: -تەت (-tæt)
      • Recent past: -دəو (-dəw)
      • Remote past: -فىج (-fɨdʒ)

1. Person Agreement: Verbs agree with both subject and object, marked by suffixes:
      • 1SG: -ٮڵ (-ɪɬ)
      • 2SG: -ىب (-ɨb)
      • 3SG: -کێ (-ke)
      • 1PL: -لə (-lə)
      • 3PL: -ٮک (-ɪk)

1. Negation: Marked by the infix -دێد- (-ded-)

1. Relative Clause Marker: -ەس (-ɛs)

1. Inclusive/Exclusive Distinction: Separate pronouns for inclusive (نە) and exclusive (سێن) first person plural.

1. Classifiers: Used with numbers, though specific forms are not provided in the lexicon.

SYNTAX

Shalāmik follows an Object-Verb-Subject (OVS) word order for main clauses. Other syntactic features include:

1. Adjective-Noun (AN) order: e.g., سنلىي بٮهۆ پرموبسىچ (snlɨj bɪ.ho prmub-sɨtʃ) "a new job"

1. Preposition-Noun (PN) order: e.g., هێڭا سمثێف نێپیسىچ (he.ŋa smθef ne.pi-sɨtʃ) "in the park"

1. Relative clauses follow the noun they modify and are marked with the suffix -ەس (-ɛs) on the verb.

1. Subordinate clauses generally precede the main clause.

EXAMPLE TEXT

Here are two example sentences from the provided text, with orthography, gloss, and English translation:

1. سمثێف سٮتە نێن پرسیتسىچ کاهۆ سمثێف بربٮذسىچ برنۇي سنکیڤ فəتا ڵولəکشۆرکێەس ڵولəکشۆرکێ.
   smθef sɪ.tɛ nen prsit-sɨtʃ ka.hɔ smθef brbɪð-sɨtʃ brnʊj snkiv fə.ta ɬwlək-ʃor-ke-ɛs ɬwlək-ʃor-ke .
   the hot SUP day-SING of the year-SING so far today be-NPAST-3SG-REL be-NPAST-3SG .
   "Today is the hottest day of the year so far."
2. سنلىي ڭورۆک لیهəسىچ هێڭا سمثێف ڵوتəفسىچ نە گلپەکدəولə.
   snlɨj ŋu.rok li.hə-sɨtʃ he.ŋa smθef ɬwtəf-sɨtʃ nɛ glpɛk-dəw-lə .
   a treasure map-SING in the attic-SING 1PLINCL find-RECPAST-1PL .
   "We found a treasure map in the attic."

LEXICON

A small sample of the Shalāmik lexicon:

PHONOLOGY

Cyrillic Ergative has a rich phonemic inventory with 26 consonants and 15 vowels:

ORTHOGRAPHY

Cyrillic Ergative uses a modified Cyrillic alphabet to represent its sounds. Some notable correspondences include:

Diphthongs are written as combinations of their component vowels.

MORPHOSYNTAX

Cyrillic Ergative exhibits an ergative-absolutive alignment in its verbal morphology. The language marks tense-aspect through suffixes, with four distinctions: nonpast (-шор), immediate past (-тӕт), recent past (-дәў), and remote past (-фыџ).

Verbs agree with both the ergative and absolutive arguments:
- Ergative markers: -ӥԓ (1SG), -ыб (2SG), -ке (3SG), -лә (1PL), -ӥк (3PL)
- Absolutive markers are not explicitly shown in the provided examples

The language distinguishes between inclusive and exclusive first person plural pronouns: нэ (1PLINCL) and сен (1PLEXCL).

Nouns are marked for number with suffixes: -сыч (singular) and -йэ (plural).

Other notable morphemes include:
- -эс: relative clause marker
- -дед: negation marker

SYNTAX

Cyrillic Ergative follows an Object-Verb-Subject (OVS) word order, which is typologically rare. Adjectives precede the nouns they modify (AN), and the language uses prepositions (PN).

EXAMPLE TEXT

1. Смѳеф ԓўпӕһ ӯк брнушсыч һеңа шуту фурусыч фрѳэн ԓўләкшоркеэс ԓўләкшорке.
   the smart COMP student-SING in our school-SING he be-NPAST-3SG-REL be-NPAST-3SG
   "He is the smartest student in our school."
2. Накен фәта смѳеф смдэссыч р̥арашорке.
   strongly today the wind-SING blow-NPAST-3SG
   "The wind is blowing strongly today."
3. Һеңа смѳеф ѳрѳэн ԓоѳӥсыч снлый битӕсыч нэ брфӧймдәўлә.
   in the sunny meadow-SING a picnic-SING 1PLINCL have-RECPAST-1PL
   "We (inclusive) had a picnic in the sunny meadow."

These examples showcase the OVS word order, verbal morphology, and some of the unique phonological features of Cyrillic Ergative.

LEXICON

A small sample of the lexicon:

брнуш - student
фуру - school
ԓўләк - be
смдэс - wind
р̥ара - blow
битӕ - picnic
брфӧйм - have
ѳрѳэн - sunny
ԓоѳӥ - meadow
фәта - today
накен - strongly

PHONOLOGY

Zethalian has a rich phonological inventory with 26 consonants and 15 vowels:

ORTHOGRAPHY

Zethalian uses a modified Greek alphabet for its orthography. Some notable features include:

1. Use of digraphs for certain sounds: 'ου' for /u/, 'αι' for /aɪ/, 'αυ' for /aʊ/, 'οι' for /ɔɪ/.
2. Diacritics to represent some consonants: 'σ̱' for /ʃ/, 'λ̥' for /ɬ/, 'ρ̥' for /r̥/.
3. Repurposing of Greek letters: 'β' represents /b/ instead of /v/.
4. Use of 'γγ' for /ŋ/, similar to some Greek dialects.

The orthography system allows for a unique visual representation of the language while maintaining some familiarity for those acquainted with the Greek alphabet.

MORPHOSYNTAX

Zethalian exhibits a rich morphological system with several notable features:

1. Number: Singular (-συτσ) and plural (-ιε) are marked on nouns.
2. Tense-Aspect: Four tenses are marked on verbs through suffixes:
      • Non-past (-σ̱ωρ)
      • Immediate past (-τατ)
      • Recent past (-δεω)
      • Remote past (-φυτζ)

1. Person Agreement: The language uses an ergative-absolutive alignment with person markers for both the ergative and absolutive cases. For example:
      • 1SG ergative: -ιλ̥
      • 3PL absolutive: -ικ

1. Negation: Verbs can be negated using the suffix -δηδ.

1. Comparative and Superlative: Marked by 'υκ' (comparative) and 'νην' (superlative).

1. Inclusive-Exclusive Distinction: The language distinguishes between inclusive (νε) and exclusive (σην) first person plural pronouns.

1. Classifiers: Zethalian uses classifiers, although the specific system is not detailed in the provided information.

SYNTAX

Zethalian follows an Object-Verb-Subject (OVS) word order, which is relatively rare among the world's languages. This order is exemplified in sentences like:

Other syntactic features include:

1. Adjective-Noun (AN) order: Adjectives precede the nouns they modify.
2. Preposition-Noun (PN) order: Prepositions come before their object nouns.

EXAMPLE TEXT

Here are a few examples from the provided text, showcasing various features of Zethalian:

1. Ζμθηφ λ̥ωπαχ υκ βρνουσ̱συτσ χηγγα σ̱ουτου φουρουσυτσ φρθεν λ̥ωλεκσ̱ωρκηεσ λ̥ωλεκσ̱ωρκη.
   the smart COMP student-SING in our school-SING he be-NPAST-3SG-REL be-NPAST-3SG
   "He is the smartest student in our school."

This sentence demonstrates the comparative construction, singular marking, and the relative clause structure.

1. Σιμου ζμθηφ ωυσ̱ειε χηγγα ταυδυ ζμθηφ νυβυιε δρβυλ̥σ̱ωρικ.
   from the tree-PLUR in autumn the leaf-PLUR fall-NPAST-3PL
   "The leaves fall from the trees in autumn."

This example shows plural marking, the use of prepositions, and verb agreement with a plural subject.

1. Χηγγα ζμθηφ νηπισυτσ ζμθηφ τσασαυιε βουιωδεωικ.
   in the park-SING the child-PLUR play-RECPAST-3PL
   "The children played in the park."

This sentence illustrates the contrast between singular and plural marking, as well as the recent past tense.

LEXICON

A small sample of the Zethalian lexicon:

βρνουσ̱ - student
φουρου - school
λ̥ωλεκ - to be
ωυσ̱ε - tree
νυβυ - leaf
δρβυλ̥ - to fall
νηπι - park
τσασαυ - child
βουιω - to play
φρπαν - mouse
σκποπ - to run

PHONOLOGY

Lhwénai has a rich phonemic inventory consisting of 26 consonants and 15 vowels:

ORTHOGRAPHY

Lhwénai uses a Latin-based alphabet with some diacritics and digraphs to represent its phonemes. Notable features include:

• 'ng' for /ŋ/
• 'th' for /θ/, 'dh' for /ð/
• 'sh' for /ʃ/, 'kh' for /χ/
• 'ch' for /tʃ/, 'j' for /dʒ/
• 'lh' for both /ɬ/ and /ɬ̥/
• 'rh' for /r̥/

Diphthongs are written as combinations of vowels: 'ai', 'au', 'oi'.

MORPHOSYNTAX

Lhwénai exhibits a rich morphological system, particularly in its verbal morphology:

1. Nominal marking:
      • Number: Singular (-sých) and Plural (-ye) suffixes
      • No case marking on nouns

1. Verbal marking:
      • Tense-aspect: Non-past (-shór), Immediate past (-tæt), Recent past (-dëw), Remote past (-fýj)
      • Person agreement: Ergative-Absolutive alignment
      • Ergative suffixes: -ïlh (1SG), -ýb (2SG), -ké (3SG), -lë (1PL), -ïk (3PL)
      • Absolutive suffixes are not explicitly shown in the examples

1. Other morphological features:
      • Negation: -déd suffix
      • Relative clause marker: -es suffix
      • Inclusive/Exclusive distinction in first person plural pronouns: 'ne' (1PLINCL) vs 'sén' (1PLEXCL)

1. Numeral classifiers: The language uses classifiers, but specific examples are not provided in the text.

SYNTAX

Lhwénai has an Object-Verb-Subject (OVS) word order for main clauses. This is a rare word order among the world's languages, adding to the uniqueness of Lhwénai.

Other syntactic features include:
- Adjective-Noun (AN) order
- Preposition-Noun (PN) order

These word order characteristics create an interesting mix of head-initial (PN) and head-final (AN, OV) structures.

EXAMPLE TEXT

Here are a few examples from the provided text, showcasing various features of Lhwénai:

1. Smthéf lhwpæh ük brnushsých hénga shutu furusých frthen lhwlëkshórkées lhwlëkshórké.
   the smart COMP student-SING in our school-SING he be-NPAST-3SG-REL be-NPAST-3SG
   "He is the smartest student in our school."

This sentence demonstrates the comparative construction (ük), singular marking (-sých), and the relative clause structure (-es).

1. Sïmu smthéf wüsheye hénga taudü smthéf nübüye drbülhshórïk.
   from the tree-PLUR in autumn the leaf-PLUR fall-NPAST-3PL
   "The leaves fall from the trees in autumn."

This example shows plural marking (-ye) and the non-past tense with third-person plural agreement (-shórïk).

1. Kani smthéf trlhehye mauwü sén glshimshórlë, kani sndïkh mæli prlochshórýb?
   to the movie-PLUR later 1PLEXCL go-NPAST-1PL, to join us want-NPAST-2SG
   "We (exclusive) are going to the movies later, do you want to join us?"

This sentence illustrates the use of the exclusive first-person plural pronoun (sén) and the second-person singular verb agreement (-shórýb).

LEXICON

A small sample of the Lhwénai lexicon:

bïhó - new
brnush - student
fëta - today
furusých - school (singular)
glmaiv - I
glshim - go
hénga - in
kani - to
lhwlëk - be
lhwpæh - smart
prloch - want
smthéf - the

PHONOLOGY

Shalāni has a rich phonemic inventory consisting of 20 consonants and 14 vowels:

The language features both oral and nasal vowels, as well as rounded and unrounded front vowels. The consonant inventory includes the uvular fricative /ʁ/ and the palatal nasal /ɲ/, which are relatively uncommon cross-linguistically.

ORTHOGRAPHY

Shalāni uses a modified Arabic script for its orthography. Vowels are represented by both full letters and diacritical marks. Some notable features include:

• The use of پ (p), گ (g), and ڤ (v) for sounds not typically found in Arabic
• Representation of /ɲ/ with ڽ
• Use of ۆ for /ɥ/
• Diacritical marks for vowels, e.g., ِ (i), ُ (u), َ (a)
• Special combinations for nasal vowels, e.g., اٰ (ɑ̃), وٰ (ɔ̃)

The orthography is written right-to-left, following Arabic convention.

MORPHOSYNTAX

Shalāni exhibits an ergative-absolutive case system, marked by postpositional words. The main cases are:

• Ergative (ٍ)
• Absolutive (غٍت)
• Genitive (not shown in examples)
• Instrumental (وُ)

The language lacks grammatical gender and does not mark tense on verbs. However, it has a complex system of person agreement markers for both ergative and absolutive arguments:

Ergative: 1SGERG-, 2SGERG-, 3SGERG-, 1PLERG-, 2PLERG-, 3PLERG-
Absolutive: -1SGABS, -2SGABS, -3SGABS, -1PLABS, -2PLABS, -3PLABS

Shalāni uses numeral classifiers, although examples are not provided in the given text.

Other notable morphological features include:

• Comparative marker (نيِغ)
• Superlative marker (ٜ)
• Equative marker (اَ)
• Relative clause marker (-َ)
• Negation suffix (-غٰا)

SYNTAX

Shalāni follows an Object-Subject-Verb (OSV) word order, which is relatively rare among the world's languages. Other syntactic features include:

• Noun-Adjective order (NA)
• Noun-Postposition order (NP)

Relative clauses are marked with the suffix -َ on the verb.

EXAMPLE TEXT

Here are a few examples from the provided text, showcasing various features of Shalāni:

1. ٍشيِس نيِغ ٍسيِت اَسٍس ٍ اَسوُغ غٍت َسيِتلگ َلاَف غٍت ٍسَک اَڽَن ٜسيِف نيِلغت
   si.ʃe ʁin ti.se se.sa e ʁu.sa teʁ gltis-ɛ fa.lɛ teʁ kɛ.se nɛ.ɲa fi.sɔ tʁlin .
   smart COMP student we ERG school ABS in-REL he ABS is with first singular .
   "We are smarter students than he who is in school."

This example demonstrates the comparative construction, ergative-absolutive case marking, and the relative clause structure.

1. اَژوُگ ٜ سٛژغد ساَکلپ ٍ غٍت تٍيلگ َٜڽاَد تيِتغگ غٍت ٍسَک اَڽَن کاَسکس نيِلغت
   gu.ʒa ɔ dʁʒœs plkas e teʁ gljet da.ɲɔ-ɛ gʁtit teʁ kɛ.se nɛ.ɲa sksak tʁlin .
   hot SUP day year ERG ABS so far-REL today ABS is with third singular .
   "Today is the hottest day of the year so far."

This sentence shows the superlative construction and the use of the relative clause marker.

1. َٰشٰازٍ اَغَک نيِغ اَتٚن ٍ َلٍنلب تٚملپ غٍت ٍسَک اَڽَن کاَسکس نيِلغت
   ez.ɑ̃ʃɛ̃ kɛ.ʁa ʁin nə.ta e blnel-ɛ plmət teʁ kɛ.se nɛ.ɲa sksak tʁlin .
   delicious cake COMP i ERG tasted-REL this ABS is with third singular .
   "This is the most delicious cake I have tasted."

This example illustrates the OSV word order, ergative marking on the first-person pronoun, and the use of the comparative marker in a superlative context.

LEXICON

A small selection from the Shalāni lexicon:

سٜتغگ - the
اَتٚن - I
غاَلغب - you
َلاَف - he
تيِتغد - she
اَسٍس - we
ٍتاَس - they
ٍسَک - is/are
ٰالٍل - be
غُژغک - go
نٍکلپ - going
اَسوُغ - school
ٍسيِت - student
ٍشيِس - smart
اَژوُگ - hot
سٛژغد - day
ساَکلپ - year
تيِتغگ - today
َٰشٰازٍ - delicious
اَغَک - cake

PHONOLOGY

Cyrillic Ergative has a rich phonological inventory with 20 consonants and 14 vowels:

The language features both oral and nasal vowels, as well as rounded and unrounded front vowels. The consonant inventory includes the uvular fricative /ʁ/ and the labio-palatal approximant /ɥ/, which are relatively uncommon cross-linguistically.

ORTHOGRAPHY

Cyrillic Ergative uses a modified Cyrillic alphabet. Some notable features include:

• The use of ъ for /ə/
• ў for /w/
• њ for /ɲ/
• ѧ, ѫ, ѩ for nasal vowels /ɑ̃/, /ɔ̃/, /ɛ̃/ respectively
• ѳ for both /ɔ/ and /ø/

This orthography allows for a unique visual representation of the language while maintaining a connection to Cyrillic traditions.

MORPHOSYNTAX

Cyrillic Ergative, as its name suggests, employs an ergative-absolutive case system. The language marks case using postpositional words:

• Ergative: е
• Absolutive: тер
• Instrumental: у

The language does not mark number on nouns, but it does have a complex verbal agreement system that marks both ergative and absolutive arguments on the verb. For example:

• 1SGERG: (not shown in examples)
• 3SGABS: тер

Other notable morphosyntactic features include:

• Comparative: рин
• Superlative: ѳ
• Equative: а
• Relative clause marker: -э

Negation is marked with the suffix -ѧр.

SYNTAX

Cyrillic Ergative has an unusual Object-Subject-Verb (OSV) word order, which is rare among the world's languages. This is consistently applied in the example sentences.

Other syntactic features include:

• Noun-Adjective order (NA): "book red" instead of "red book"
• Noun-Postposition order (NP): "table on" instead of "on table"

These features combine to give Cyrillic Ergative a distinct syntactic profile that sets it apart from many other languages.

EXAMPLE TEXT

Here are a few examples from the provided text, with orthography, gloss, and English translation:

1. Сише рин тисе сеса е руса тер глтисэ фалэ тер кэсе нэња фисѳ трлин .
   smart COMP student we ERG school ABS in-REL he ABS is with first singular .
   "We are smarter students than he is in school."
2. Гужа ѳ држёс плкас е тер глйет дањѳэ гртит тер кэсе нэња сксак трлин .
   hot SUP day year ERG ABS so far-REL today ABS is with third singular .
   "Today is the hottest day of the year so far."
3. Танё тер депа кэны тер сннер глтис спрен нэња сксак плдил .
   trees ABS from leaves ABS autumn in fall with third plural .
   "Leaves fall from the trees in autumn."
4. Врвѧк нъйа нъта е ралиѧр нэња фисѳ трлин .
   very well i ERG swim-NEG with first singular .
   "I don't swim very well."

These examples showcase the OSV word order, case marking, and verbal agreement system of Cyrillic Ergative.

LEXICON

A small sample of the lexicon:

тер - ABS (Absolutive case marker)
е - ERG (Ergative case marker)
у - INS (Instrumental case marker)
рин - COMP (Comparative marker)
ѳ - SUP (Superlative marker)
а - EQU (Equative marker)
-э - REL (Relative clause marker)
-ѧр - NEG (Negation suffix)
кэсе - is
нэња - with
трлин - singular
плдил - plural
сеса - we
фалэ - he
дртит - she
нъта - I
брлар - you

PHONOLOGY

Neogrekos has a rich phonological inventory with 20 consonants and 14 vowels:

The language features both oral and nasal vowels, as well as rounded front vowels like /y/ and /ø/. The consonant inventory includes the uvular fricative /ʁ/ and the palatal nasal /ɲ/, which are less common cross-linguistically.

ORTHOGRAPHY

Neogrekos uses a modified Greek alphabet for its orthography. Some notable features include:

• The use of 'ου' for /u/
• 'ζ̌' represents /ʒ/
• 'ν̃' represents the palatal nasal /ɲ/
• Nasal vowels are marked with a tilde: 'α̃', 'ο̃', 'ε̃'

The orthography aims to maintain a close correspondence with the phonology while utilizing familiar Greek letters.

MORPHOSYNTAX

Neogrekos exhibits an ergative-absolutive case system, marked by postpositional words. The main cases are:

• Ergative (ε)
• Absolutive (τερ)
• Genitive (not specified in the sample)
• Instrumental (ου)

Verbs show agreement with both ergative and absolutive arguments, distinguishing singular and plural for all three persons. For example:

• 1SGERG: First person singular ergative
• 3PLABS: Third person plural absolutive

The language lacks grammatical gender and does not mark tense or aspect on verbs. However, it employs various particles for comparison (ριν for comparative, α for equative, ο for superlative) and negation (-α̃ρ).

Neogrekos uses numeral classifiers, although specific examples were not provided in the sample text.

SYNTAX

The basic word order in Neogrekos is Object-Subject-Verb (OSV), which is relatively rare among the world's languages. Adjectives follow the nouns they modify (NA order), and the language uses postpositions rather than prepositions (NP order).

EXAMPLE TEXT

Here are a few examples from the provided text, showcasing various features of Neogrekos:

1. Σιςε ριν τισε σεσα ε ρουσα τερ γλτισε φαλε τερ κεσε νεν̃α φισο τρλιν .
   smart COMP student we ERG school ABS in-REL he ABS is with first singular .
   "We are smarter students than he is in school."
2. Γουζ̌α ο δρζ̌οσ πλκασ ε τερ γλιετ δαν̃οε γρτιτ τερ κεσε νεν̃α σκσακ τρλιν .
   hot SUP day year ERG ABS so far-REL today ABS is with third singular .
   "Today is the hottest day of the year so far."
3. Ν̃εσε σεςε δρτιτ ε κρνυτα̃ρ νεν̃α σκσακ τρλιν .
   spicy food she ERG like-NEG with third singular .
   "She doesn't like spicy food."

These examples demonstrate the OSV word order, case marking, comparatives and superlatives, and verbal agreement in Neogrekos.

LEXICON

A small sample of the Neogrekos lexicon:

σιςε - smart
ρουσα - school
κεσε - is
νεν̃α - with
φισο - first
τρλιν - singular
δρζ̌οσ - day
πλκασ - year
γρτιτ - today
σεςε - food
κρνυτ - like
α̃ρ - NEG (negation suffix)
ε - ERG (ergative case marker)
τερ - ABS (absolutive case marker)
ου - INS (instrumental case marker)
ριν - COMP (comparative particle)
ο - SUP (superlative particle)

PHONOLOGY

Sénalang has a rich phonological inventory with 20 consonants and 14 vowels:

The language features both oral and nasal vowels, as well as rounded front vowels (y, ø, œ) which are relatively uncommon cross-linguistically. The consonant inventory includes the uvular fricative ʁ and the palatal nasal ɲ, adding to the language's distinctive sound.

ORTHOGRAPHY

Sénalang uses a Latin-based alphabet with some diacritics to represent its sounds. Notable features include:

• 'c' represents /k/
• 'ch' represents /ʃ/
• 'j' represents /ʒ/
• 'ń' represents /ɲ/
• 'r' represents /ʁ/
• 'y' represents /j/
• 'ü' represents /ɥ/
• 'ou' represents /u/
• 'oe' represents /œ/
• 'eu' represents /ø/
• Nasal vowels are marked with a cedilla: ą (/ɑ̃/), ǫ (/ɔ̃/), ę (/ɛ̃/)

The orthography aims to be phonemic, with each letter or digraph corresponding to a single phoneme in most cases.

MORPHOSYNTAX

Sénalang exhibits an ergative-absolutive case system, marked by postpositional words. The main cases are:

• Ergative (ERG): marked by 'é'
• Absolutive (ABS): marked by 'tér'
• Instrumental (INS): marked by 'ou'

The language lacks grammatical gender and does not mark tense on verbs. However, it has a complex system of verbal agreement, marking both ergative and absolutive arguments on the verb for person and number.

Other notable morphosyntactic features include:

• Comparative (COMP): marked by 'rin'
• Superlative (SUP): marked by 'ò'
• Equative (EQU): marked by 'a'
• Relative clause marker (REL): suffix '-è'
• Negation (NEG): suffix '-ąr'

Sénalang also employs numeral classifiers, although the specific classifiers are not detailed in the provided information.

SYNTAX

Sénalang has an unusual Object-Subject-Verb (OSV) word order for main clauses. This is a rare word order, found in only about 0.3% of the world's languages.

Other syntactic features include:

• Noun-Adjective (NA) order
• Noun-Postposition (NP) order

These word orders contribute to the language's head-final tendencies, which is consistent with its OSV main clause order.

EXAMPLE TEXT

Here are a few examples from the provided text, showing the orthography, gloss, and English translation:

1. Siché rin tisé sésa é rousa tér gltisè falè tér cèsé nèńa fisò trlin.
   smart COMP student we ERG school ABS in-REL he ABS is with first singular
   "We are smarter than the student who is in school."
2. Gouja ò drjoes plcas é tér glyét dańòè grtit tér cèsé nèńa scsac trlin.
   hot SUP day year ERG ABS so far-REL today ABS is with third singular
   "Today is the hottest day of the year so far."
3. Tanoe tér dépa cènu tér snnér gltis sprén nèńa scsac pldil.
   trees ABS from leaves ABS autumn in fall with third plural
   "Leaves fall from the trees in autumn."

These examples demonstrate the OSV word order, case marking, and verbal agreement system of Sénalang.

LEXICON

A small sample of the Sénalang lexicon:

neta - I
brlar - you
falè - he/she
sésa - we
saté - they
cèsé - is/are
crjor - go
plsén - eat
vrzit - want
siché - smart
dani - new
gouja - hot
méti - easy
éząchę - delicious

PHONOLOGY

Sitara has a relatively simple phonological system consisting of 16 consonants and 5 vowels:

The language allows for syllable structures of CV, CVC, and V. Consonant clusters are not permitted within syllables. Stress typically falls on the penultimate syllable of a word.

ORTHOGRAPHY

Sitara uses a modified Arabic script for its writing system. Each phoneme is represented by a unique character:

Vowels:
a: ا, o: و, u: ُ, e: ِ, i: ي

Some vowel combinations have special representations:
ao: او
ae: اے

Words are written from right to left, following Arabic script conventions. Vowels are typically written as full letters rather than diacritics, making the script more readable for learners.

MORPHOSYNTAX

Sitara employs an ergative-absolutive case system, marked by postpositional words. The main cases are:

• Ergative (ERG): را (ra)
• Absolutive (ABS): ُ (u)
• Instrumental (INS): بان (ban)

The language does not mark grammatical gender or have an inclusive-exclusive distinction for pronouns. It does, however, use numeral classifiers, though the specific system is not detailed in the provided information.

Verbs in Sitara do not mark tense or aspect morphologically. Instead, the language uses a complex system of person agreement markers for both ergative and absolutive arguments:

Ergative markers: 1SGERG, 2SGERG, 3SGERG, 1PLERG, 2PLERG, 3PLERG
Absolutive markers: 1SGABS, 2SGABS, 3SGABS, 1PLABS, 2PLABS, 3PLABS

These markers are attached to the verb, indicating the person and number of both the subject and object.

Additional morphosyntactic markers include:
- Negation (-NEG): -ي (-i)
- Relative clause marker (-REL): -ا (-a)
- Comparative (COMP): هِن (hen)
- Equative (EQU): تُ (tu)
- Superlative (SUP): غو (go)

SYNTAX

Sitara follows an Object-Subject-Verb (OSV) word order for its main clauses. This is a relatively rare word order among the world's languages, making Sitara typologically interesting.

Adjectives follow the nouns they modify (NA order), and adpositions come after their noun phrases (NP order). These postpositional phrases typically precede the verb in a sentence.

EXAMPLE TEXT

Here are a few examples from the provided text, showcasing various aspects of Sitara grammar:

1. هوكِ هِن نابي سيتا را رُغُ ُ شوشوا هاما ُ هادا سِتا كوزا سانسو
   ho.ke hen na.bi si.ta ra ru.gu u ʃo.ʃo-a ha.ma u ha.da se.ta ko.za sa.nso
   smart COMP student we ERG school ABS in-REL he ABS is with first singular
   "We are smarter students than he is in school."

This example demonstrates the comparative construction, ergative-absolutive case marking, and the relative clause marker.

1. ويدُ سِهِ بُكا ُ شوشو غُسا سِتا هُشا كُكي
   wi.du se.he bu.ka u ʃo.ʃo gu.sa se.ta hu.ʃa ku.ki
   flowers many garden ABS in bloom with third plural
   "Many flowers bloom in the garden."

This sentence shows the OSV word order and the use of the absolutive case for intransitive subjects.

1. غاكو را رِمو سومُ سيتا را سُتِ سِتا كوزا كُكي
   ga.ko ra re.mo so.mu si.ta ra su.te se.ta ko.za ku.ki
   bread ERG loaves two we ERG bought with first plural
   "We bought two loaves of bread."

This example illustrates the use of the ergative case for transitive subjects and the placement of numerals after the noun.

LEXICON

A small sample of the Sitara lexicon:

Nouns:
هُتِ (hu.te) - house
نابي (na.bi) - student
رُغُ (ru.gu) - school
يِهِ (je.he) - phone
ناسِ (na.se) - day

Adjectives:
هوكِ (ho.ke) - smart
كِري (ke.ri) - new
غِهُ (ge.hu) - old
تامايِ (ta.maje) - delicious
دِكو (de.ko) - small

This lexicon represents only a small portion of the Sitara vocabulary but provides a glimpse into the language's word formation and semantic categories.

PHONOLOGY

Kytolang has a relatively simple phonological system consisting of 16 consonants and 5 vowels:

The language allows both open and closed syllables, with a preference for CV structure. Consonant clusters are limited, typically occurring only across syllable boundaries.

ORTHOGRAPHY

Kytolang uses a modified Cyrillic alphabet for its orthography. This choice adds a unique visual aspect to the language while maintaining a connection to existing writing systems. The orthography is largely phonemic, with each sound represented by a single character:

MORPHOSYNTAX

Kytolang exhibits an ergative-absolutive case system, which is marked through postpositional words. The main cases are:

• Ergative (ра): Marks the subject of transitive verbs
• Absolutive (у): Marks the object of transitive verbs and the subject of intransitive verbs
• Genitive (-а): Marks possession
• Instrumental (бан): Marks the instrument used in an action

The language does not mark grammatical number on nouns, relying instead on context or explicit number words.

Verbs in Kytolang show a complex agreement system, marking both ergative and absolutive arguments for person and number. This results in a rich set of verbal affixes, including:

• 1SGERG, 2SGERG, 3SGERG, 1PLERG, 2PLERG, 3PLERG
• 1SGABS, 2SGABS, 3SGABS, 1PLABS, 2PLABS, 3PLABS

The language also employs several comparative and equative markers:
- COMP (хен): Comparative
- EQU (ту): Equative
- SUP (го): Superlative

Kytolang uses classifiers with numbers, adding a layer of semantic categorization to quantification.

SYNTAX

Kytolang follows an Object-Subject-Verb (OSV) word order, which is relatively rare among world languages. This order is consistently maintained in both main and subordinate clauses.

Other syntactic features include:
- Noun-Adjective (NA) order: Adjectives follow the nouns they modify
- Noun-Postposition (NP) order: Postpositions follow their noun phrases

The consistent head-final structure (OSV, NA, NP) gives Kytolang a distinctive syntactic profile.

EXAMPLE TEXT

Here are a few examples from the provided text, showcasing various aspects of Kytolang grammar:

1. Хоке хен наби сита ра ругу у шошоа хама у хада сета коза сансо.
   smart COMP student we ERG school ABS in-REL he ABS is with first singular
   "We are smarter students than he is in school."
2. Кити го насе паро ра у неко сопоа хоте у хада сета хуша сансо.
   hot SUP day year ERG ABS so far-REL today ABS is with third singular
   "Today is the hottest day of the year so far."
3. Капа у зупу хеги у мере шошо шоги сета хуша куки.
   trees ABS from leaves ABS autumn in fall with third plural
   "Leaves fall from the trees in autumn."

These examples demonstrate the OSV word order, case marking, and verb agreement system of Kytolang.

LEXICON

A small sample of the Kytolang lexicon:

биху (address)
зама (always)
кишу (am)
така (and)
мухо (are)
веба (art)
кого (as)
качу (at)
хуойи (attic)
мере (autumn)
диату (backyard)
нуну (baked)
сана (be)
чупу (bicycle)
гуса (bloom)
сачо (blows)
сису (blue)
поко (bone)
нира (book)
суте (bought)
гако (bread)
дино (built)
йоче (buried)
кабо (bus)
кеши (but)
нада (cake)
мушу (cat)
хира (change)
даба (chased)
манси (children)
нане (class)
каго (climate)
коову (closed)
некеху (contractor)
мушо (cottage)
зибе (country)
вене (cousin)
насе (day)
кена (decided)
тамайе (delicious)
тасеси (department)
ховози (different)
йеси (dinner)
сугохи (discovered)
нону (dog)
таде (easy)
руша (eat)
пасе (eight)
хото (elected)
сузу (enough)
хоето (exercise)
нозойе (expensive)
шоги (fall)
сопо (far)
коза (first)
виду (flowers)
тухо (food)
суси (for)
кама (found)
весу (friend)
соку (frog)
зупу (from)
бука (garden)
кузу (get)
биту (go)
мире (going)
теге (graded)
нуги (grocery)
гуге (had)
тена (have)
хама (he)
сето (here)
рага (hole)
кити (hot)
хуте (house)
муме (i)
шошо (in)
сакихи (interested)
нути (into)
месе (invited)
хада (is)
меко (it)
тапо (its)
тари (job)
саха (join)
суко (last)
румо (later)
хеги (leaves)
соойа (lent)
боку (letter)
теко (like)
тузо (lived)
ремо (loaves)
кура (man)
сехе (many)
тути (map)
паго (meadow)
камо (melted)
созе (minutes)
госе (model)
туто (month)
муки (mouse)
шета (movie)
йато (movies)
чати (moving)
доре (need)
нухи (needs)
кери (new)
коно (next)
тада (night)
зето (o'clock)
коса (office)
геху (old)
даро (on)
кошо (park)
тиру (party)
зохо (pen)
йехе (phone)
бохи (piano)
киму (picnic)
часо (planted)
неаве (plants)
мубо (plastic)
теийу (play)
кето (played)
саси (playing)
куки (plural)
бекеве (president)
рема (project)
вепо (ran)
мако (rustled)
хисата (sandcastle)
риси (saw)
ругу (school)
новиху (scientist)
таха (second)
йошу (she)
хиута (shopping)
руму (shovels)
сансо (singular)
меша (sky)
деко (small)
хоке (smart)
чаме (snowman)
неко (so)
гету (soccer)
ниду (species)
хема (spicy)
како (sports)
нуто (stars)
гаса (start)
йари (starts)
сота (stay)
каево (store)
тууне (strongly)
наби (student)
нонсо (students)
маехо (sunlight)
рохи (sunny)
нуте (swim)
сиха (tasted)
кидо (teacher)
йеса (tests)
реду (the)
хасе (there)
вако (they)
хуша (third)
меови (this)
роса (thou)
ноде (to)
хоте (today)
таосу (together)
виру (tomato)
хонда (treasure)
капа (trees)
рууйе (true)
дусу (twice)
шиусо (twinkled)
сому (two)
сигу (until)
тути (used)
йоато (vacation)
сосеха (vegetables)
саха (very)
носе (waiting)
како (want)
кохе (was)
сита (we)
хаайе (week)
ниса (well)
хоко (went)
мага (when)
кого (while)
вену (whole)
руга (will)
визи (wind)
сета (with)
нуку (wrote)
паро (year)
таби (you)
гисе (younger)

PHONOLOGY

Hellenikos has a relatively simple phonological system consisting of 16 consonants and 5 vowels:

The language allows for some consonant clusters, particularly in syllable-initial position. The phonotactics generally follow a (C)(C)V(C) structure, with some restrictions on which consonants can appear together.

ORTHOGRAPHY

Hellenikos uses a modified Greek alphabet for its orthography. Some key correspondences include:

• /ʃ/ is represented by ς
• /tʃ/ is represented by τς
• /u/ is represented by ου
• /j/ is represented by ι
• /w/ is represented by ω

This system allows for a clear representation of the language's phonology while maintaining a connection to its Greek-inspired aesthetic.

MORPHOSYNTAX

Hellenikos exhibits an ergative-absolutive case system, which is relatively rare among the world's languages. The case marking is done through postpositional words, rather than affixes. The main cases are:

• Ergative (ERG): ρα
• Absolutive (ABS): ου
• Genitive (GEN): (not specified in the given information)
• Instrumental (INS): βαν

The language does not mark grammatical number on nouns, lacking a singular-plural distinction.

Verbs in Hellenikos do not mark tense or aspect. However, they do show agreement with both the ergative and absolutive arguments using prefixes. For example:

• 1SGERG: (not specified)
• 3SGABS: (not specified)

Additional grammatical categories include:

• Comparative (COMP): χεν
• Equative (EQU): του
• Superlative (SUP): γο
• Relative clause marker (REL): -α
• Negation (NEG): -ι

Hellenikos also employs a system of numeral classifiers, though the specific classifiers are not provided in the given information.

SYNTAX

Hellenikos has a typologically unusual Object-Subject-Verb (OSV) word order for its main clauses. This order is quite rare among the world's languages.

Other word order features include:
- Noun-Adjective (NA) order
- Noun-Postposition (NP) order

These features combine to create a consistently head-final structure in noun phrases and adpositional phrases, contrasting with the object-initial structure of main clauses.

EXAMPLE TEXT

Here are a few examples from the provided text, showing the orthography, gloss, and English translation:

1. Χοκε χεν ναβι σιτα ρα ρουγου ου ςοςοα χαμα ου χαδα σετα κοζα σανσο .
   smart COMP student we ERG school ABS in-REL he ABS is with first singular .
   "We are smarter than the student who is in school."
2. Κιτι γο νασε παρο ρα ου νεκο σοποα χοτε ου χαδα σετα χουσα σανσο .
   hot SUP day year ERG ABS so far-REL today ABS is with third singular .
   "Today is the hottest day of the year so far."
3. Ωιδου σεχε βουκα ου ςοςο γουσα σετα χουσα κουκι .
   flowers many garden ABS in bloom with third plural .
   "Many flowers are blooming in the garden."

These examples demonstrate the OSV word order, postpositional case marking, and verb-final structure of Hellenikos.

LEXICON

A small sample of the Hellenikos lexicon:

PHONOLOGY

Shosholang has a relatively simple phonological system consisting of 16 consonants and 5 vowels.

The language allows for both open and closed syllables, with a preference for CV structure. Consonant clusters are relatively rare, occurring mainly in loanwords or at morpheme boundaries.

ORTHOGRAPHY

The orthography of Shosholang is largely phonemic, with a few digraphs for sounds not represented by single letters in the Latin alphabet:

• 'sh' represents /ʃ/
• 'ch' represents /tʃ/
• 'y' represents /j/

Most other sounds are represented by their IPA equivalents. One notable orthographic rule is that a double 'o' at the end of a word is written as 'oo' rather than 'o'.

MORPHOSYNTAX

Shosholang exhibits an ergative-absolutive case system, marked by postpositional words. The main case markers are:

• 'ra' for ergative
• 'u' for absolutive
• 'ban' for instrumental

The language does not mark grammatical gender or have an inclusive-exclusive distinction in pronouns. It also lacks overt tense marking on verbs.

Verbs agree with both the ergative and absolutive arguments in person and number. For example:

• '-seta coza sanso' marks 1st person singular ergative
• '-seta husha sanso' marks 3rd person singular ergative
• '-seta coza cuci' marks 1st person plural ergative

Shosholang uses classifiers with numbers, although the specific classifiers are not detailed in the provided information.

SYNTAX

Shosholang has an unusual Object-Subject-Verb (OSV) word order for its main clauses. This is relatively rare among the world's languages.

Adjectives follow the nouns they modify (NA order), and adpositions follow their noun phrases (NP order). These postpositional phrases often function as case markers.

EXAMPLE TEXT

Here are a few examples from the provided text:

1. Ceri yehe gehu gosea cogo dusu nozoye tu cogo redu u hada seta husha sanso.
   new phone old model-REL as twice expensive EQU as the ABS is with third singular
   "The new phone is twice as expensive as the old model."
2. Capa u zupu hegi u mere shosho shogi seta husha cuci.
   trees ABS from leaves ABS autumn in fall with third plural
   "Leaves fall from the trees in autumn."
3. Yoato daro cono haaye sita u mire, cosa u neco coowu ruga sana seta husha sanso.
   vacation on next week we ABS going, office ABS so closed will be with third singular
   "We are going on vacation next week, so the office will be closed."

LEXICON

A small sample of the Shosholang lexicon:

hute: house
nira: book
bitu: go
cido: teacher
mushu: cat
nonu: dog
tamaye: delicious
hira: change
cago: climate
bihu: address
zibe: country

PHONOLOGY

Saralang has a phoneme inventory consisting of 20 consonants and 5 vowels:

The syllable structure appears to be (C)V(C), allowing both open and closed syllables.

ORTHOGRAPHY

Saralang uses a modified Arabic script for its orthography. Some key features:

• Vowels are represented by full letters rather than diacritics
• Some consonants use modified forms of Arabic letters
• The script is written right-to-left

Vowels:
/a/ -> ا
/e/ -> ە
/i/ -> ی
/o/ -> ۆ
/u/ -> و

A hamza (ء) is added before word-initial vowels.

MORPHOSYNTAX

Saralang exhibits an ergative-absolutive case system with the following cases:
- Ergative (ERG): marked by لال (lal)
- Absolutive (ABS): marked by رۆس (ros)
- Genitive (GEN): not seen in the sample text
- Instrumental (INS): marked by لی (li)

The language uses postpositional words for case marking.

Verbal morphology includes person agreement for both ergative and absolutive arguments:
- 1SGERG, 2SGERG, 3SGERG, 1PLERG, 2PLERG, 3PLERG
- 1SGABS, 2SGABS, 3SGABS, 1PLABS, 2PLABS, 3PLABS

Other notable morphological features:
- Comparative marker: سین (sin)
- Equative marker: نە (ne)
- Superlative marker: لی (li)
- Relative clause marker: نیر (-nir)
- Negation marker: رۆ- (-ro)

The language uses numeral classifiers, though examples are not provided in the sample text.

SYNTAX

Saralang has an Object-Subject-Verb (OSV) word order for main clauses. Other syntactic features include:

• Noun-Adjective order (NA)
• Noun-Postposition order (NP)
• Relative clauses are formed with the suffix -nir
• Auxiliaries follow the main verb

EXAMPLE TEXT

Here are a few examples from the provided text:

1. نیسی سین ءیبرە ءۆکنۆ لال سەسە رۆس ریسانیر ءاسنو رۆس رەسۆ ءومنا ءۆڕرو لەلا
   ni.si sin ib.ɾe ok.no lal se.se ɾos ɾi.sa-niɾ as.nu ɾos ɾe.so um.na or.ɾu le.la .
   smart COMP student we ERG school ABS in-REL he ABS is with first singular .
   "We are smarter than the student who is in school."
2. ءۆکلە لی سیلو لەنە لال رۆس ءۆلنۆ سونۆنیر ءۆکری رۆس رەسۆ ءومنا سالۆ لەلا
   ok.le li si.lu le.ne lal ɾos ol.no su.no-niɾ ok.ɾi ɾos ɾe.so um.na sa.lo le.la .
   hot SUP day year ERG ABS so far-REL today ABS is with third singular .
   "Today is the hottest day of the year so far."
3. سەسار لانۆ سین ریدۆ لال ءۆلنونیر ءەتلۆ رۆس رەسۆ ءومنا سالۆ لەلا
   se.saɾ la.no sin ɾi.do lal ol.nu-niɾ et.lo ɾos ɾe.so um.na sa.lo le.la .
   delicious cake COMP i ERG tasted-REL this ABS is with third singular .
   "This is more delicious than the cake I tasted."

LEXICON

A small sample of the lexicon:

ءیبرە (ib.re) - student
سەسە (se.se) - school
ءاسنو (as.nu) - he
ءۆکنۆ (ok.no) - we
سیلو (si.lu) - day
لەنە (le.ne) - year
ءۆکری (ok.ri) - today
لانۆ (la.no) - cake
ریدۆ (ri.do) - I
ءەتلۆ (et.lo) - this
رەسۆ (re.so) - is
ءومنا (um.na) - with

PHONOLOGY

CyrErg has a phonological inventory consisting of 20 consonants and 5 vowels:

The syllable structure is generally (C)V(C), allowing for some consonant clusters.

ORTHOGRAPHY

CyrErg uses a modified Cyrillic alphabet. Each phoneme is represented by a single letter, with some adaptations:

Note that ɾ and r are both represented by р, as the distinction is not considered phonemic in the orthography.

MORPHOSYNTAX

CyrErg is an ergative-absolutive language with a rich case system and complex verbal agreement. Key features include:

1. Case marking: Ergative (ERG), Absolutive (ABS), Genitive (GEN), and Instrumental (INS) cases are marked using postpositional words.

1. Number: The language distinguishes singular and plural, but not dual.

1. Verbal agreement: Verbs agree with both the ergative and absolutive arguments in person and number. The markers are: ERG: 1SG: -орру, 2SG: -адло, 3SG: -сало, 1PL: -орру, 2PL: -адло, 3PL: -сало ABS: 1SG: -лела, 2SG: -лела, 3SG: -лела, 1PL: -дера, 2PL: -дера, 3PL: -дера

1. Tense-Aspect: Not marked morphologically.

1. Negation: Marked by the suffix -ро on verbs.

1. Relativization: Marked by the suffix -нир on the head noun.

1. Comparison: Comparative (COMP) and equative (EQU) constructions use separate particles.

1. Numeral classifiers: The language employs a classifier system, though specific classifiers are not provided in the sample.

SYNTAX

CyrErg has an unusual Object-Subject-Verb (OSV) word order, which is relatively rare cross-linguistically. Other syntactic features include:

1. Adjective-Noun order: Noun-Adjective (NA)
2. Adposition-Noun order: Noun-Postposition (NP)
3. Relative clauses: Head-internal, marked with the suffix -нир on the head noun
4. Comparison constructions: The standard of comparison precedes the adjective

EXAMPLE TEXT

Here are two example sentences from the provided text:

1. Ниси син ибре окно лал сесе рос рисанир асну рос ресо умна орру лела .
   smart COMP student we ERG school ABS in-REL he ABS is with first singular .
   "We are smarter students than he is in school."
2. Нели ефди осла ехсонир дала рено серос не дала лера рос ресо умна сало лела .
   new phone old model-REL as twice expensive EQU as the ABS is with third singular .
   "The new phone is twice as expensive as the old model."

These examples demonstrate the OSV word order, postpositional case marking, and complex verbal agreement system of CyrErg.

LEXICON

A small sample of the CyrErg lexicon:

амди (amdi) - cat
ебну (ebnu) - strongly
ејра (eʝra) - whole
етло (etlo) - this
инра (inra) - bus, job
лала (lala) - singular
лене (lene) - year
нани (nani) - to
окно (okno) - we
ресо (reso) - is
рос (ros) - ABS (absolutive case marker)
умна (umna) - with

PHONOLOGY

Elorian has a relatively simple phonological system consisting of 20 consonants and 5 vowels:

The language includes some less common sounds like the palatal nasal ɲ, the palatal lateral approximant ʎ, and the voiced palatal fricative ʝ. It also distinguishes between a tap ɾ and a trill r.

ORTHOGRAPHY

Elorian uses a Latin-based alphabet with some digraphs and diacritics:

p, b, t, d, c, g, f, th, s, h, ch, m, n, ñ, l, ll, r, rr, y

MORPHOSYNTAX

Elorian is an ergative-absolutive language with case marking through postpositional words. The main cases are:

• Ergative (ERG): marked by 'lal'
• Absolutive (ABS): marked by 'ros'
• Instrumental (INS): marked by 'li'

The language does not mark grammatical number on nouns. There is no grammatical gender.

Verbs show agreement with both the ergative and absolutive arguments through suffixes:

• 1SGERG, 2SGERG, 3SGERG, 1PLERG, 2PLERG, 3PLERG
• 1SGABS, 2SGABS, 3SGABS, 1PLABS, 2PLABS, 3PLABS

Other notable morphological features include:
- A relative marker -nir
- A negation suffix -ro
- Comparative and superlative markers 'sin' and 'li' respectively

Elorian uses numeral classifiers, though the specific system is not detailed in the provided information.

SYNTAX

Elorian has an unusual Object-Subject-Verb (OSV) word order for main clauses. This is quite rare among the world's languages.

Other word order features include:
- Noun-Adjective (NA) order
- Noun-Postposition (NP) order

EXAMPLE TEXT

Here are a few example sentences from Elorian with glosses and translations:

1. Nisi sin ibre ocno lal sese ros risanir asnu ros reso umna orrru lela.
   smart COMP student we ERG school ABS in-REL he ABS is with first singular
   "We are smarter students than he is in school."
2. Ocle li silu lene lal ros olno sunonir ocri ros reso umna salo lela.
   hot SUP day year ERG ABS so far-REL today ABS is with third singular
   "Today is the hottest day of the year so far."
3. Sesar lano sin rido lal olnunir etlo ros reso umna salo lela.
   delicious cake COMP i ERG tasted-REL this ABS is with third singular
   "This is the most delicious cake I have tasted."

LEXICON

A small sample of the Elorian lexicon:

nisi - smart
ibre - student
sese - school
efdi - phone
silu - day
lene - year
ussa - book
lano - cake
osne - trees
nase - leaves
sani - wind
ecle - bicycle
sane - movie
ucda - vacation
nara - climate
lusi - office

PHONOLOGY

Thulāni has a rich phonemic inventory with 26 consonants and 15 vowels:

ORTHOGRAPHY

Thulāni uses a modified Arabic script for its orthography. Some notable features include:

1. Vowel representation: Most vowels are represented by full letters rather than diacritics, e.g., 'ا' for /a/, 'ی' for /i/.
2. Additional characters: The script includes modified Arabic letters to represent sounds not found in standard Arabic, such as 'ڤ' for /v/ and 'چ' for /tʃ/.
3. Digraphs: Some sounds are represented by digraphs, e.g., 'اي' for /aɪ/, 'او' for /aʊ/.

The orthography aims to provide a one-to-one correspondence between phonemes and graphemes, with a few exceptions for digraphs and special characters.

MORPHOSYNTAX

Thulāni exhibits a complex morphosyntactic structure:

1. Case System: The language uses an ergative-absolutive case system, with additional cases such as genitive and instrumental. Cases are marked by postpositional words.

1. Verbal Agreement: Verbs agree with both the ergative and absolutive arguments in person and number. For example:
      • 1SGERG: First person singular ergative
      • 3PLABS: Third person plural absolutive

1. Number: The language distinguishes between singular and plural, but not dual.

1. Tense-Aspect: Interestingly, Thulāni does not mark tense or aspect on verbs.

1. Negation: Negation is marked by the suffix '-ێک' (-ek).

1. Relativization: Relative clauses are formed using the suffix '-نۆ' (-no).

1. Comparison: Comparative and superlative forms are marked by 'مəن' (mən) and 'ࢨک' (ɪk) respectively.

SYNTAX

Thulāni follows an Object-Subject-Verb (OSV) word order, which is relatively rare among the world's languages. This order is consistently maintained in main clauses.

Other syntactic features include:

1. Adjective-Noun order: Adjectives follow the nouns they modify (NA).
2. Adposition-Noun order: Postpositions are used instead of prepositions (NP).
3. Subordinate clauses: These typically precede the main clause.

EXAMPLE TEXT

Here are a few examples from the provided text, showcasing various features of Thulāni:

1. ثرکوس مəن خەسə نۇخاي نࢧب پليۆڤ مو فلدəننۆ ستمام مو رəذو سنپۆر گونəڭ لاوبەن
   θrkus mən χɛ.sə nʊ.χaɪ næb pljov mu fldən-no stmam mu rə.ðu snpɔr gwnəŋ laʊ.bɛn
   smart COMP student we ERG school ABS in-REL he ABS is with first singular
   "We are smarter than the student who is in school."

This sentence demonstrates the comparative construction, ergative-absolutive case marking, and a relative clause.

1. وࢩفə ࢨک برڭێڤ کرفࢧگ نࢧب مو تࢨفۆ کرتۆثنۆ فرگەپ مو رəذو سنپۆر گرنايم لاوبەن
   wɨ.fə ɪk brŋev krfæg næb mu tɪ.fɔ krtoθ-no frgɛp mu rə.ðu snpɔr grnaɪm laʊ.bɛn
   hot SUP day year ERG ABS so far-REL today ABS is with third singular
   "Today is the hottest day of the year so far."

This example shows the superlative construction and the use of the ergative case with an inanimate subject.

1. چࢨيا فەيا کࢨڤۆ نࢧب دۆنəێک سنپۆر گونəڭ لاوبەن
   tʃɪ.ja fɛ.ja kɪ.vɔ næb do.nə-ek snpɔr gwnəŋ laʊ.bɛn
   very well i ERG swim-NEG with first singular
   "I don't swim very well."

This sentence illustrates the negation suffix and first-person singular ergative agreement on the verb.

LEXICON

The lexicon of Thulāni includes both content words and grammatical markers. Some notable entries:

• نࢧب (næb): Ergative case marker
• مو (mu): Absolutive case marker
• هə (hə): Instrumental case marker
• نۆ (-no): Relative clause marker
• ێک (-ek): Negation suffix
• مəن (mən): Comparative marker
• ࢨک (ɪk): Superlative marker
• سنپۆر (snpɔr): Verbal agreement marker "with"
• چیگا (tʃi.ga): Coordinating conjunction "and"

Content words show a mix of semantic fields, including:

• پليۆڤ (pljov): "school"
• کرفࢧگ (krfæg): "year"
• دۆنə (do.nə): "swim"
• پرنۆذ (prnɔð): "food"
• کردەر (krdɛr): "wind"

The lexicon demonstrates the language's unique phonological and orthographic features, as well as its morphosyntactic structures.

PHONOLOGY

Krylovik has a rich phonemic inventory consisting of 26 consonants and 15 vowels:

ORTHOGRAPHY

Krylovik uses a modified Cyrillic alphabet for its orthography. Some notable features include:

1. Use of 'ң' for the velar nasal /ŋ/
2. 'ѳ' represents the voiceless dental fricative /θ/
3. 'ђ' is used for the voiced dental fricative /ð/
4. 'ԓ' represents the voiceless alveolar lateral fricative /ɬ/
5. Diacritics are used to distinguish certain vowels: 'ӥ' for /ɪ/, 'ӧ' for /ɔ/, 'ӯ' for /ʊ/, 'ӕ' for /æ/

MORPHOSYNTAX

Krylovik exhibits an ergative-absolutive case system, marked by postpositional words. The main cases are:

1. Ergative (ERG): нӕб
2. Absolutive (ABS): му
3. Genitive (GEN): (not shown in the sample, but mentioned as present)
4. Instrumental (INS): һә

The language lacks number marking on nouns but has a rich system of verbal agreement markers for person and number in both ergative and absolutive alignments. For example:

• 1SGERG: (not shown in the sample, but part of the system)
• 3SGABS: (not explicitly shown, but implied in verb forms)

Other notable morphosyntactic features include:

• Comparative marker (COMP): мән
• Equative marker (EQU): гэг
• Superlative marker (SUP): ӥк
• Negation suffix: -ек
• Relativizer suffix: -но

The language uses classifiers with numbers, though no examples were provided in the sample text.

SYNTAX

Krylovik has an Object-Subject-Verb (OSV) word order for main clauses. This is a relatively rare word order cross-linguistically, found in only about 0.3% of the world's languages.

Adjectives follow the nouns they modify (NA order), and adpositions are postpositions (NP order). For example:

• ѳркус мән хэсә (smart COMP student) "smarter student"
• флдән-но (in-REL) "in which"

The language uses postpositional words for case marking, which appear after the noun phrase they modify.

EXAMPLE TEXT

Here are a few examples from the provided text, with orthographic transcription, gloss, and English translation:

1. Ўэсу гўрӥт скчӥд крԓомно гэсе ђӯфи ѳргихи гэг гэсе лӧнэ му рәђу снпӧр грнайм лаўбэн.
   new phone old model-REL as twice expensive EQU as the ABS is with third singular
   "The new phone is twice as expensive as the old model."
2. Һӧфффи снлӯб мән кӥвӧ нӕб йӥђино йане му рәђу снпӧр грнайм лаўбэн.
   delicious cake COMP i ERG tasted-REL this ABS is with third singular
   "This is the most delicious cake I have tasted."
3. Крдэр му флдән бәмо му кўдың снпӧр грнайм стсик.
   wind ABS in leaves ABS rustled with third plural
   "The leaves rustled in the wind."

These examples showcase the OSV word order, postpositional case marking, and the use of various morphosyntactic features like the comparative marker and relativizer.

LEXICON

A small sample of the Krylovik lexicon:

ўэсу - new
гўрӥт - phone
скчӥд - old
крԓом - model
ђӯфи - twice
ѳргихи - expensive
лӧнэ - the
рәђу - is
снпӧр - with
грнайм - third
лаўбэн - singular
һӧфффи - delicious
снлӯб - cake
кӥвӧ - I
йӥђи - tasted
крдэр - wind
бәмо - leaves
кўдың - rustled
стсик - plural

This lexicon demonstrates some of the phonological and orthographic features of Krylovik, such as the use of special Cyrillic characters and diacritics.

PHONOLOGY

Neokosmos has a rich phonemic inventory consisting of 26 consonants and 15 vowels:

ORTHOGRAPHY

Neokosmos uses a modified Greek alphabet for its orthography, with some unique adaptations:

• Most consonants have straightforward Greek letter equivalents (e.g., π for p, τ for t).
• Some digraphs are used for complex sounds (e.g., τς for tʃ, τζ for dʒ).
• Vowels generally follow Greek conventions, with some extensions (e.g., οϋ for u).
• Diacritics are used in specific contexts, such as the diaeresis (ϋ) to mark certain vowel sequences.
• The final sigma rule is applied, with ς used word-finally instead of σ.

This orthographic system allows for a visually distinct writing system while maintaining some familiarity for those acquainted with the Greek alphabet.

MORPHOSYNTAX

Neokosmos exhibits an ergative-absolutive case system, which is relatively uncommon among the world's languages. The main cases are:

• Ergative (ERG): Marks the subject of transitive verbs
• Absolutive (ABS): Marks the object of transitive verbs and the subject of intransitive verbs
• Genitive (GEN): Indicates possession
• Instrumental (INS): Marks the instrument used in an action

Case is marked using postpositional words, rather than affixes or prefixes.

Verbs show agreement with both ergative and absolutive arguments, distinguishing person and number. For example:

• 1SGERG: First person singular ergative
• 3PLABS: Third person plural absolutive

The language does not mark tense or aspect on verbs, relying instead on context or temporal adverbs to convey such information.

Neokosmos also employs a classifier system, adding an extra layer of nominal categorization.

SYNTAX

The basic word order in Neokosmos is OSV (Object-Subject-Verb), which is quite rare among the world's languages. This order is consistently applied in both main and subordinate clauses.

Adjectives follow the nouns they modify (NA order), and adpositions are postpositions, coming after the noun phrase they govern (NP order).

These syntactic features combine to create a highly head-final language structure, where modifiers and complements generally precede their heads.

EXAMPLE TEXT

Here are a few examples from the provided text, showcasing the unique features of Neokosmos:

1. Θρκοϋς μεν χεσε νυχαι ναβ πλιωβ μοϋ φλδεννω στμαμ μοϋ ρεδοϋ σνπορ γωνεγγ λαϋβεν.
   smart COMP student we ERG school ABS in-REL he ABS is with first singular
   "We are smarter than the student who is in school."
2. Ωεσοϋ γωριτ σκτςιδ κρλλωμνω γεση δυφι θργιχι γεγ γεση λονε μοϋ ρεδοϋ σνπορ γρναιμ λαϋβεν.
   new phone old model-REL as twice expensive EQU as the ABS is with third singular
   "The new phone is twice as expensive as the old model."
3. Τςατςο ςιθο κρσυβ νυχαι ναβ ρηκωλλ θερε νονυ νολι σνπορ γρναιμ λαϋβεν.
   climate change country we ERG together address needs to with third singular
   "We need to address climate change in our country together."

These examples demonstrate the OSV word order, postpositional case marking, and the use of relational particles like -νω (REL) and comparative constructions.

LEXICON

A small sample of the Neokosmos lexicon:

This lexicon showcases the unique phonological and orthographic features of Neokosmos, with its blend of familiar and exotic sounds represented in the modified Greek script.

PHONOLOGY

The language allows for complex consonant clusters, as seen in words like 'skchïd' (old) and 'thrshýl' (grocery).

ORTHOGRAPHY

Thrlangai uses a modified Latin alphabet to represent its sounds. Most consonants are represented by their IPA equivalents, with some exceptions:

• /ŋ/ is written as 'ng'
• /θ/ is written as 'th'
• /ʃ/ is written as 'sh'
• /χ/ is written as 'kh'
• /ð/ is written as 'dh'
• /tʃ/ is written as 'ch'
• /dʒ/ is written as 'j'
• /ɬ/ and /ɬ̥/ are both written as 'lh'
• /r̥/ is written as 'rh'

Vowels use diacritics to distinguish between similar sounds:

• /e/ is written as 'é'
• /ɪ/ is written as 'ï'
• /o/ is written as 'ó'
• /ʊ/ is written as 'ü'
• /ə/ is written as 'ë'
• /ɨ/ is written as 'ý'

MORPHOSYNTAX

Thrlangai exhibits an ergative-absolutive case system, with postpositional words marking case. The language uses the following cases: ergative (ERG), absolutive (ABS), genitive (GEN), and instrumental (INS).

Verbs in Thrlangai do not mark tense or aspect. However, they do show agreement with both the ergative and absolutive arguments, distinguishing between singular and plural for first, second, and third person.

The language employs several additional morphosyntactic markers, including:

• NEG: Negation marker
• REL: Relative clause marker
• COMP: Comparative marker
• EQU: Equative marker
• SUP: Superlative marker

Thrlangai does not mark grammatical gender or have an inclusive-exclusive distinction in pronouns.

The language employs a classifier system, though the specific classifiers are not detailed in the provided information.

SYNTAX

Thrlangai follows an Object-Subject-Verb (OSV) word order for main clauses. This is a relatively rare word order among the world's languages.

Adjectives follow the nouns they modify (NA order), and adpositions follow their noun complements (NP order). These characteristics align with the language's general head-final tendency, as seen in the OSV word order.

EXAMPLE TEXT

Here are a few examples from the provided text:

1. Thrkus mën khesë nükhai næb plyóv mu fldënnó stmam mu rëdhu snpor gwnëng lauben.
   smart COMP student we ERG school ABS in-REL he ABS is with first singular
   "We are smarter students than he is in school."
2. Wýfë ïk brngév krfæg næb mu tïfo krtóthnó frgep mu rëdhu snpor grnaim lauben.
   hot SUP day year ERG ABS so far-REL today ABS is with third singular
   "Today is the hottest day of the year so far."
3. Chacho shitho krsüb nükhai næb rékólh there nonü noli snpor grnaim lauben.
   climate change country we ERG together address needs to with third singular
   "Our country needs to address climate change together."

LEXICON

A small sample of the lexicon:

kïvo: I
nükhai: we
kwlet: you
stmam: he
müvæ: she
nýfa: they
pete: house
rengï: job
tïyau: week
krfæg: year
matha: go
rëdhu: is
snpor: with
noli: to
mu: ABS (absolutive marker)
næb: ERG (ergative marker)
hë: INS (instrumental marker)
-nó: REL (relative clause marker)
-ék: NEG (negation marker)
mën: COMP (comparative marker)
ïk: SUP (superlative marker)
geg: EQU (equative marker)

PHONOLOGY

Zhevronian has a rich phonemic inventory consisting of 20 consonants and 14 vowels:

The language features both oral and nasal vowels, as well as rounded and unrounded front vowels. The consonant inventory includes the uvular fricative /ʁ/ and the palatal nasal /ɲ/, giving Zhevronian a distinctive sound profile.

ORTHOGRAPHY

Zhevronian uses a modified Arabic script for its orthography. Each phoneme is represented by a unique Arabic character or a modified version thereof. For example:

• /p/ is represented by پ
• /ʃ/ is represented by ش
• /ɲ/ is represented by ڽ
• /y/ is represented by ۆ

The orthography is largely phonemic, with each sound having a consistent written representation. This makes reading and writing Zhevronian relatively straightforward once the script is learned.

MORPHOSYNTAX

Zhevronian exhibits a rich morphological system with both inflectional and derivational processes. Some key features include:

1. Case system: Zhevronian has seven cases - nominative, accusative, dative, genitive, ablative, locative, and instrumental. These are marked by suffixes on nouns.

1. Number: The language distinguishes between singular and plural, marked by suffixes (-ke for singular, -ʃɑ̃ for plural).

1. Tense and aspect: Verbs are marked for present, past, and future tenses, as well as various aspects like perfective and imperfective.

1. Person and number agreement: Verbs agree with their subjects in person and number.

1. Voice: Active and passive voices are distinguished morphologically.

1. Mood: Indicative and conditional moods are marked on verbs.

1. Negation: Negation is expressed through a verbal suffix.

1. Derivational morphology: Zhevronian has various affixes for deriving new words, such as the superlative prefix 'səl-'.

SYNTAX

Zhevronian follows an SOV (Subject-Object-Verb) word order in main clauses. Other syntactic features include:

1. Adjectives precede the nouns they modify (AN order).
2. Postpositions are used instead of prepositions (NP order).
3. Relative clauses are formed using the suffix -lœn on the verb of the relative clause.
4. Subordinate clauses generally precede the main clause.
5. Question words typically appear in situ (in the same position as the corresponding non-question words would appear in a declarative sentence).

EXAMPLE TEXT

Here are a few examples from the provided text, showing the orthography, gloss, and English translation:

1. فغييسکەںس وەغۆۆ غامےکےا ۆ گامي بودےکےکەںس غيبےکەںس دەنۆيوللاکوت
   fʁjis-kɛ̃s wɛ.ʁɔ-ɔ ʁa.me-ke-a ø ga.mi bo.de-ke-kɛ̃s ʁi.be-kɛ̃s dɛ.nɔ-i-ul-lak-ut
   he-NOM we-GEN school-SING-LOC COMP smart student-SING-NOM the-NOM be-PRES-IND-3SG-ACT
   "He is the smartest student in our school."
2. لاغەکەںس بغتےتکەںس توںشەيماوت لےغالۆن سهل هنۆنا مۆلےکےکەںس غيبےکەںس دەنۆيوللاکوت
   la.ʁɛ-kɛ̃s bʁtet-kɛ̃s tɔ̃.ʃɛ-i-ma-ut le.ʁa-lœn səl ən.øna my.le-ke-kɛ̃s ʁi.be-kɛ̃s dɛ.nɔ-i-ul-lak-ut
   this-NOM i-NOM taste-PRES-1SG-ACT have-REL SUP delicious cake-SING-NOM the-NOM be-PRES-IND-3SG-ACT
   "This is the most delicious cake I have ever tasted."
3. غيڽۆشاںکەںس غيبےکەںس وےکۆا توںتيشاںو غيبےو لەپە نوسايولےلوت
   ʁi.ɲœ-ʃɑ̃-kɛ̃s ʁi.be-kɛ̃s we.kœ-a tɔ̃.ti-ʃɑ̃-o ʁi.be-o lɛ.pɛ no.sa-i-ul-el-ut
   leaf-PLUR-NOM the-NOM autumn-LOC tree-PLUR-ABL the-ABL from fall-PRES-IND-3PL-ACT
   "The leaves fall from the trees in autumn."

LEXICON

A small sample of the Zhevronian lexicon:

PHONOLOGY

Vornese has a rich phonemic inventory with 20 consonants and 14 vowels:

The language features both oral and nasal vowels, as well as rounded and unrounded front vowels. The consonant inventory includes the uvular fricative /ʁ/ and the palatal nasal /ɲ/, giving Vornese a distinctive sound profile.

ORTHOGRAPHY

Vornese uses a modified Cyrillic alphabet for its orthography. Some notable correspondences include:

• /ɲ/ is represented by њ
• /ʁ/ is represented by р
• /j/ is represented by й
• /ɥ/ is represented by ю
• /w/ is represented by ў
• /ə/ is represented by ъ
• /œ/ is represented by ё
• /ɔ/ is represented by ѳ
• /ɑ̃/ is represented by ѧ
• /ɔ̃/ is represented by ѫ
• /ɛ̃/ is represented by ѩ
• /ø/ is represented by ѳ̈

This orthography allows for a unique visual representation of Vornese while maintaining a connection to existing Cyrillic-based writing systems.

MORPHOSYNTAX

Vornese exhibits a complex morphosyntactic structure with extensive case marking and verbal inflection.

Nominal Morphology:
- Number: Singular (-ke) and Plural (-шѧ)
- Case: Nominative (-кѩс), Accusative (-эм), Dative (-шер), Genitive (-ѳ), Ablative (-о), Locative (-а), Instrumental (-ъ)

Verbal Morphology:
- Tense: Present (-и), Past (-нѫл), Future (-кэ)
- Aspect: Perfective (-ут)
- Mood: Indicative (-ул), Conditional (-дат)
- Person agreement: 1SG (-ма), 2SG (-рѧ), 3SG (-лак), 1PL (-сър), 3PL (-ел)
- Voice: Passive (-е)

Additional morphemes:
- Negation: -е
- Relative clause marker: -лён

Vornese also uses classifiers with numbers, though the specific classifier system is not detailed in the provided information.

SYNTAX

Vornese follows an SOV (Subject-Object-Verb) word order for main clauses. Adjectives precede the nouns they modify (AN order), and the language uses postpositions rather than prepositions (NP order).

EXAMPLE TEXT

Here are some examples from the provided text, showcasing various aspects of Vornese grammar:

1. Фрйискѩс ўэрѳѳ рамекеа ѳ̈ гами бодекекѩс рибекѩс дэнѳиуллакут.
   fʁjis-kɛ̃s wɛ.ʁɔ-ɔ ʁa.me-ke-a ø ga.mi bo.de-ke-kɛ̃s ʁi.be-kɛ̃s dɛ.nɔ-i-ul-lak-ut
   he-NOM we-GEN school-SING-LOC COMP smart student-SING-NOM the-NOM be-PRES-IND-3SG-ACT
   "He is the smartest student in our school."

This example demonstrates case marking (nominative, genitive, locative), the comparative marker (ѳ̈), and verbal inflection for person, tense, and mood.

1. Ларэкѩс бртеткѩс тѫшэимаут лералён съл ънѳ̈на мылекекѩс рибекѩс дэнѳиуллакут.
   la.ʁɛ-kɛ̃s bʁtet-kɛ̃s tɔ̃.ʃɛ-i-ma-ut le.ʁa-lœn səl ən.øna my.le-ke-kɛ̃s ʁi.be-kɛ̃s dɛ.nɔ-i-ul-lak-ut
   this-NOM i-NOM taste-PRES-1SG-ACT have-REL SUP delicious cake-SING-NOM the-NOM be-PRES-IND-3SG-ACT
   "This is the most delicious cake I have ever tasted."

This sentence showcases the use of the relative clause marker (-лён) and the superlative marker (съл).

1. Рињёшѧкѩс рибекѩс ўекёа тѫтишѧо рибео лэпэ носаиулелут.
   ʁi.ɲœ-ʃɑ̃-kɛ̃s ʁi.be-kɛ̃s we.kœ-a tɔ̃.ti-ʃɑ̃-o ʁi.be-o lɛ.pɛ no.sa-i-ul-el-ut
   leaf-PLUR-NOM the-NOM autumn-LOC tree-PLUR-ABL the-ABL from fall-PRES-IND-3PL-ACT
   "The leaves fall from the trees in autumn."

This example demonstrates plural marking, locative and ablative cases, and verbal agreement with a plural subject.

LEXICON

A small sample of the Vornese lexicon:

PHONOLOGY

Neolekta has a rich phonemic inventory consisting of 20 consonants and 14 vowels:

The language features a contrast between voiced and voiceless consonants, as well as a three-way distinction in place of articulation for stops and fricatives (labial, coronal, and velar/uvular). The vowel system is particularly complex, with front rounded vowels and nasal vowels that are typical of languages like French.

ORTHOGRAPHY

Neolekta uses a modified Greek alphabet for its orthography. Some notable features include:

• The use of 'ου' to represent /u/
• Diacritics to represent nasal vowels (e.g., 'α̃' for /ɑ̃/)
• The use of 'ϸ' and 'ϸ́' for /ʃ/ and /ʒ/ respectively
• 'ϵ' represents /œ/ and /ø/

This orthography allows for a unique visual representation while maintaining some connection to the Greek alphabet.

MORPHOSYNTAX

Neolekta exhibits a rich morphological system with both fusional and agglutinative features:

1. Nouns are marked for number (singular -κε, plural -ϸα̃) and case (nominative -κε̃σ, accusative -εμ, dative -ϸερ, genitive -ο, ablative -ο, locative -α, instrumental -ε).

1. Verbs are marked for tense (present -ι, past -νο̃λ, future -κε), mood (indicative -ουλ, conditional -δατ), person and number (e.g., 1SG -μα, 3PL -ελ), and voice (active -ουτ, passive -ε).

1. The language uses suffixes for various grammatical functions, such as negation (-ε), relativization (-λϵν), and comparison (comparative ϵ, superlative σελ).

1. Neolekta employs a complex system of verbal agreement, marking both subject and object on the verb.

SYNTAX

Neolekta follows an SOV (Subject-Object-Verb) word order, which is relatively uncommon among the world's languages. Other syntactic features include:

1. Adjective-Noun order: Adjectives precede the nouns they modify.
2. Postpositions: Adpositions follow their noun phrases, contrary to the more common prepositional structure.
3. Relative clauses: Based on the examples, it appears that relative clauses follow their head nouns and are marked with the suffix -λϵν on the verb.

EXAMPLE TEXT

Here are a few examples from the provided text, showcasing various features of Neolekta:

1. Φριισκε̃σ ωεροο ραμεκεα ϵ γαμι βοδεκεκε̃σ ριβεκε̃σ δενοιουλλακουτ.
   he-NOM we-GEN school-SING-LOC COMP smart student-SING-NOM the-NOM be-PRES-IND-3SG-ACT
   "He is the smartest student in our school."
2. Λαρεκε̃σ βρτετκε̃σ το̃ϸειμαουτ λεραλϵν σελ ενϵνα μυλεκεκε̃σ ριβεκε̃σ δενοιουλλακουτ.
   this-NOM i-NOM taste-PRES-1SG-ACT have-REL SUP delicious cake-SING-NOM the-NOM be-PRES-IND-3SG-ACT
   "This is the most delicious cake I have ever tasted."
3. Ωεροκε̃σ γρβαμ βοσαο ρεκακεα λερε δϵσυισερουτ ιετο, τα̃κε τοδϵκεκε̃σ ριβεκε̃σ σπκεν δενοκεδατλακουτ.
   we-NOM next week-GEN vacation-SING-LOC on go-PRES-1PL-ACT are, so office-SING-NOM the-NOM closed be-FUT-COND-3SG-ACT
   "We are going on vacation next week, so the office would be closed."

These examples demonstrate the SOV word order, case marking, verbal morphology, and other grammatical features of Neolekta.

LEXICON

A small sample of the Neolekta lexicon:

βρτετ - I
ν̃ιτε - you
φριισ - he
φρζϵτ - she
ωερο - we
ρενε̃ - they
δενο - be
δϵσυ - go
σιϸι - play
κλκερ - eat
δρμεν - see
λερα - have
πρρατ - like
κρνατ - need
σνβεν - house
ραμε - school
τοδϵ - office
μυλε - cake
γρλϵρ - dog
λυδου - cat

This lexicon showcases some basic vocabulary items in Neolekta, illustrating the language's phonological and orthographic conventions.

PHONOLOGY

Nèsalą has a rich phonemic inventory consisting of 20 consonants and 14 vowels:

The language features both oral and nasal vowels, which is relatively uncommon cross-linguistically. The consonant inventory includes the uvular fricative /ʁ/ and the labio-palatal approximant /ɥ/, both of which are somewhat marked sounds.

Nèsalą allows fairly complex syllable structures, with consonant clusters permitted in both onset and coda positions.

ORTHOGRAPHY

Nèsalą uses a Latin-based alphabet with some diacritics. The orthography is largely phonemic, with a few digraphs and special characters:

Consonants:
p, b, t, d, c, g, f, v, s, z, ch, j, m, n, ń, l, r, y, ü, w

Vowels:
i, u, ou, é, e, o, è, oe, ò, a, ą, ǫ, ę, eu

MORPHOSYNTAX

Nèsalą exhibits a rich morphological system with both nominal and verbal inflection.

Nouns are marked for number (singular -cé, plural -chą) and case. The case system includes:
- Nominative (-cęs)
- Accusative (-èm)
- Dative (-chér)
- Genitive (-ò)
- Ablative (-o)
- Locative (-a)
- Instrumental (-e)

Verbs are marked for tense (present -i, past -nǫl, future -cè), mood (indicative -oul, conditional -dat), and person/number agreement. The agreement system distinguishes between ergative and absolutive arguments:

Ergative:
1SG: -ma
2SG: -rą
3SG: -lac
1PL: -ser
3PL: -él

Absolutive markers are not provided in the lexicon.

Additional verbal markers include:
- Active voice: -out
- Passive voice: -é
- Negative: -é (homophonous with passive)
- Relative clause marker: -loen

Nèsalą also employs a classifier system, though specific classifiers are not provided in the lexicon.

SYNTAX

Nèsalą follows an SOV (Subject-Object-Verb) word order for main clauses. Adjectives precede the nouns they modify (AN), and the language uses postpositions rather than prepositions (NP).

EXAMPLE TEXT

Here are a few examples from the provided text, with orthographic transcription, gloss, and English translation:

1. Fryiscęs wèròò ramécéa eu gami bodécécęs ribécęs dènòioullacout.
   he-NOM we-GEN school-SING-LOC COMP smart student-SING-NOM the-NOM be-PRES-IND-3SG-ACT
   "He is the smartest student in our school."
2. Larè spséccęs téré pisacéò ribéò sire sel nępè lecècécęs ribécęs dènòioullacout.
   this exercise-NOM whole book-SING-GEN the-GEN in SUP easy one-SING-NOM the-NOM be-PRES-IND-3SG-ACT
   "This exercise is the easiest one in the whole book."
3. Wèròcęs prnòn todeucéa répoua tisa scliliserout yètò, mésa ńitéò génougécécęs vrrin clrorcèdatlacout.
   we-NOM new office-SING-LOC a-LOC to move-PRES-1PL-ACT are, but you-GEN department-SING-NOM here stay-FUT-COND-3SG-ACT
   "We are moving to a new office, but your department will stay here."

LEXICON

A small selection from the provided lexicon:

• 1SG: -ma (first person singular marker)
• 3SG: -lac (third person singular marker)
• ACC: -èm (accusative case marker)
• FUT: -cè (future tense marker)
• PAST: -nǫl (past tense marker)
• PRES: -i (present tense marker) bake: sarè book: pisa child: nésę delicious: eneuna eat: clcér friend: bèrou go: doesu house: snbén i: brtét new: prnòn school: ramé smart: gami student: bodé

PHONOLOGY

Keshoran has a relatively simple phonological system consisting of 16 consonants and 5 vowels:

ORTHOGRAPHY

Keshoran uses an Arabic-inspired script for its writing system. Each phoneme is represented by a unique character, with some special rules for vowel representation:

• Short vowels /u/ and /e/ are represented as diacritics above the preceding consonant
• Long vowels /a/, /o/, and /i/ are represented by full letters
• The affricate /tʃ/ is represented by a single character

Some notable orthographic rules:
- When /i/, /u/, or /e/ precede /a/ or /o/, a hamza (ء) is inserted to indicate hiatus
- Short vowels are placed after their associated consonant in the final orthographic representation

MORPHOSYNTAX

Keshoran exhibits a rich morphological system with both nominal and verbal inflection:

Nominal morphology:
- Number: Singular (-tu) and Plural (-tu)
- Case: Nominative (-zo), Accusative (-a), Dative (-u), Genitive (-pu), Ablative (-u), Locative (-go), Instrumental (-u)

Verbal morphology:
- Tense: Present (-o), Past (-i), Future (-a)
- Aspect: Perfective (-ses), Imperfective (-o)
- Mood: Indicative (-o), Conditional (-ton)
- Voice: Active (-se), Passive (-a)
- Person agreement: 1SG (-a), 2SG (-i), 3SG (-ten), 1PL (-ten), 2PL (-ten), 3PL (-a)

Other morphological features:
- Negation: Suffix (-u)
- Relativizer: Suffix (-mo)
- Comparative: Prefix (san)
- Superlative: Prefix (u)

SYNTAX

Keshoran follows an SOV (Subject-Object-Verb) word order for main clauses. Other syntactic features include:

• Adjective-Noun: Adjectives precede the nouns they modify
• Adposition-Noun: Postpositions are used instead of prepositions
• Relative clauses: Precede the noun they modify and are marked with the -mo suffix on the verb

EXAMPLE TEXT

Here are a few examples from the provided text, showcasing various aspects of Keshoran grammar:

1. تاتِتو ووهُهُپ مُمِدُتو سان زِزُت داناتُتو كومِمو رِراووتِتسِس
   ta.te-zo wo.hu-pu mu.de-tu-go san ze.tu da.na-tu-zo ko.me-zo re.ʃa-o-o-ten-se
   he-NOM we-GEN school-SING-LOC COMP smart student-SING-NOM the-NOM be-PRES-IND-3SG-ACT
   "He is the smartest student in our school."
2. ووهُهو واپُپ كيتيتُتو پِپِسو روسا سُسيءوتِتسِس هوشُش, مِما سِسيپُپ هوشاسِسُتو غاكِك ناچيءاتونتِتسِس
   wo.hu-zo wa.pu ki.ti-tu-go pe.se-go ro.sa su.mi-o-ten-se ho.ʃu , me.na se.pi-pu ho.ʃa.se-tu-zo ga.ke na.tʃi-a-ton-ten-se
   we-NOM new office-SING-LOC a-LOC to move-PRES-1PL-ACT are , but you-GEN department-SING-NOM here stay-FUT-COND-3SG-ACT
   "We are moving to a new office, but your department will stay here."
3. شِشوزو داپِپ وِوتُتُُ كارو هاكوبُبُتا كومِما بُبييءواسِس
   ʃe.do-zo da.pe we.po-tu-u ka.ro ha.ko.bu-tu-a ko.me-a bu.ri-i-o-a-se
   they-NOM plastic shovel-PLUR-INS with sandcastle-SING-ACC the-ACC build-PAST-IND-3PL-ACT
   "They built the sandcastle with plastic shovels."

LEXICON

A small sample of the Keshoran lexicon:

kome - the
reSa - be
hako - go
seSo - friend
kuki - I
tate - he
wohu - we
pese - a/an
sana - student
mude - school
kiti - office
haSase - department
dape - plastic
wepo - shovel
hakobu - sandcastle
buri - build

PHONOLOGY

Koshanese has a relatively simple phonological system consisting of 16 consonants and 5 vowels:

The language allows for consonant clusters and diphthongs. Syllable structure is typically CV or CVC, though more complex structures are possible.

ORTHOGRAPHY

Koshanese uses a Cyrillic-based orthography, with a one-to-one correspondence between phonemes and graphemes:

а о у е и
a o u e i

This orthography allows for easy reading and writing, with each sound represented by a single letter. The use of Cyrillic script gives Koshanese a distinctive appearance while maintaining phonetic transparency.

MORPHOSYNTAX

Koshanese exhibits a rich morphological system with both nominal and verbal inflection:

Nominal Marking:
- Number: Singular (-tu) and Plural (-tu)
- Case: Nominative (-zo), Accusative (-a), Dative (-u), Genitive (-pu), Ablative (-u), Locative (-go), Instrumental (-u)

Verbal Marking:
- Tense-Aspect: Present (-o), Past (-i), Future (-a)
- Person Agreement: 1SG (-a), 2SG (-i), 3SG (-ten), 1PL (-ten), 2PL (-ten), 3PL (-a)
- Voice: Active (-se), Passive (-a)
- Mood: Indicative (-o), Conditional (-ton)

Additional morphemes:
- Negation: -u
- Relative clause marker: -mo

Koshanese also employs numeral classifiers, though the specific forms are not provided in the given information.

SYNTAX

Koshanese follows an SOV (Subject-Object-Verb) word order for main clauses. Modifiers generally precede the words they modify:

• Adjective-Noun: AN (Adjective before Noun)
• Adposition-Noun: NP (Noun before Postposition)

This consistent head-final structure is typical of many SOV languages.

EXAMPLE TEXT

Here are a few examples from the provided text, showing the orthography, gloss, and English translation:

1. Вохузо дуку нугипу кансатуго пага хакоотенсе хошу, хиса кититузо комезо като решаатонтенсе.
   wo.hu-zo du.ku nu.gi-pu ka.nsa-tu-go pa.ga ha.ko-o-ten-se ho.ʃu , hi.sa ki.ti-tu-zo ko.me-zo ka.to re.ʃa-a-ton-ten-se .
   we-NOM next week-GEN vacation-SING-LOC on go-PRES-1PL-ACT are , so office-SING-NOM the-NOM closed be-FUT-COND-3SG-ACT .
   "We are going on vacation next week, so the office will be closed."
2. Кешизо дате шукутуа курауоотенсе.
   ke.ʃi-zo da.te ʃu.ku-tu-a ku.ra-u-o-o-ten-se .
   she-NOM spicy food-SING-ACC like-NEG-PRES-IND-3SG-ACT .
   "She doesn't like spicy food."
3. Созутузо комезо риту шукутуа доувууатонтенсе.
   so.zu-tu-zo ko.me-zo ri.tu ʃu.ku-tu-a douwu-u-a-ton-ten-se .
   cat-SING-NOM the-NOM its food-SING-ACC eat-NEG-FUT-COND-3SG-ACT .
   "The cat might not eat its food."

These examples demonstrate the SOV word order, case marking, and complex verbal morphology of Koshanese.

LEXICON

A small sample of the Koshanese lexicon:

PHONOLOGY

Kethosian has a relatively simple phonological system consisting of 16 consonants and 5 vowels:

The language allows consonant clusters and diphthongs. Syllable structure is generally (C)V(C), with some more complex structures permitted.

ORTHOGRAPHY

Kethosian uses a modified Greek alphabet for its writing system. Some key correspondences:

• ʃ is represented by ϸ
• tʃ is written as τϸ
• j is written as ι
• w is written as ω

The orthography is largely phonemic, with a close correspondence between sounds and symbols. This makes reading and writing Kethosian relatively straightforward once the system is learned.

MORPHOSYNTAX

Kethosian exhibits a rich morphological system with both nominal and verbal inflection.

Nouns are marked for:
- Number (singular -tu, plural -tu)
- Case (nominative -zo, accusative -a, dative -u, genitive -pu, ablative -u, locative -go, instrumental -u)

Verbs are marked for:
- Tense (present -o, past -i, future -a)
- Aspect (perfective -se)
- Mood (indicative -o, conditional -ton)
- Person and number agreement (e.g. 1sg -a, 3sg -ten, 3pl -a)
- Voice (active -se, passive -a)

Other notable morphological features:
- Comparative marker: san
- Superlative marker: u
- Negation marker: -u

SYNTAX

Kethosian follows an SOV (Subject-Object-Verb) word order in main clauses. Other syntactic features include:

• Adjectives precede the nouns they modify (AN order)
• Postpositions are used instead of prepositions (NP order)
• Relative clauses are formed using the suffix -mo on the verb

EXAMPLE TEXT

Here are a few examples from the provided text, with orthography, gloss, and English translation:

1. Τατεζο ωοχυπυ μυδετυγο σαν ζετυ δανατυζο κομεζο ρεϸαοοτενσε.
   ta.te-zo wo.hu-pu mu.de-tu-go san ze.tu da.na-tu-zo ko.me-zo re.ʃa-o-o-ten-se
   he-NOM we-GEN school-SING-LOC COMP smart student-SING-NOM the-NOM be-PRES-IND-3SG-ACT
   "He is the smartest student in our school."
2. Συγετυζο κομεζο ωασεγο δαμετυυ κομευ κυγυ νεροοοασε.
   su.ge-tu-zo ko.me-zo wa.se-go da.me-tu-u ko.me-u ku.gu ne.ro-o-o-a-se
   leaf-PLUR-NOM the-NOM autumn-LOC tree-PLUR-ABL the-ABL from fall-PRES-IND-3PL-ACT
   "The leaves fall from the trees in autumn."
3. Κυκιζο μιγα χετο ροζυ ροσα ζεγευοοασε.
   ku.ki-zo mi.ga he.to ro.zu ro.sa ze.ge-u-o-o-a-se
   i-NOM very well swim to can't-NEG-PRES-IND-1SG-ACT
   "I can't swim very well."

LEXICON

A small sample of the Kethosian lexicon:

PHONOLOGY

Shunari has a relatively simple phonological system consisting of 16 consonants and 5 vowels:

The language allows consonant clusters and diphthongs. Syllable structure is generally (C)V(C), with most words following a CVCV pattern.

ORTHOGRAPHY

Shunari uses a modified Latin alphabet. Most sounds correspond directly to their IPA equivalents, with a few exceptions:

• /ʃ/ is written as 'sh'
• /tʃ/ is written as 'ch'
• /j/ is written as 'y'

Long vowels are marked with a circumflex:
- /ii/ becomes 'î'
- /uu/ becomes 'û'

MORPHOSYNTAX

Shunari is an agglutinative language with a rich system of suffixes for both nouns and verbs.

Nominal morphology:
- Number: singular (-tu) and plural (-tu)
- Case: nominative (-zo), accusative (-a), dative (-u), genitive (-pu), ablative (-u), locative (-go), instrumental (-u)

Verbal morphology:
- Tense: present (-o), past (-i), future (-a)
- Aspect: perfective (-se)
- Mood: indicative (-o), conditional (-ton)
- Person agreement: 1sg (-a), 2sg (-i), 3sg (-ten), 1pl (-ten), 3pl (-a)
- Voice: active (-se), passive (-a)

Other notable morphemes:
- Negation: -u
- Relativizer: -mo

Shunari does not mark gender grammatically and lacks an inclusive/exclusive distinction in pronouns.

SYNTAX

Shunari follows an SOV (Subject-Object-Verb) word order. Other syntactic features include:

• Adjectives precede nouns (AN)
• Postpositions follow nouns (NP)
• Relative clauses precede the noun they modify
• Subordinate clauses generally come before the main clause

The language uses postpositions rather than prepositions, consistent with its head-final nature.

EXAMPLE TEXT

Here are two example sentences from the provided text, with gloss and translation:

1. Wapu torutuzo comezo seca nigotupu comepu maco gibu riyago reshaootense.
   new phone-SING-NOM the-NOM old model-SING-GEN the-GEN as twice expensive be-PRES-IND-3SG-ACT
   "The new phone is twice as expensive as the old model."
2. Wohuzo mana meritupu noga cuwuhu seharotû peseu caro haco rosa cabeotense nima.
   we-NOM this project-SING-GEN for different contractor-SING-INS a-INS with go to decide-PRES-1PL-ACT have
   "We have to decide to go with a different contractor for this project."

These examples showcase several features of Shunari, including case marking, postpositions, and complex verb morphology.

LEXICON

A small sample of the Shunari lexicon:

cuci - I
sepi - you
tate - he
ceshi - she
wohu - we
shedo - they
mude - school
zetu - smart
dana - student
wapu - new
toru - phone
seca - old
nigo - model
riyago - expensive
hushu - today
gina - year
cuze - hot
saci - day
huaso - exercise
zaga - book
yano - easy
ruci - cake
goyupu - delicious
suge - leaf
dame - tree
nero - fall
resha - child
rido - park
yagi - play
bige - wind
cuga - blow

This lexicon demonstrates some of the basic vocabulary of Shunari, including pronouns, adjectives, and common nouns.

PHONOLOGY

Alnari has a phoneme inventory consisting of 20 consonants and 5 vowels:

The language features a contrast between dental and palatal laterals (l vs. ʎ) and between a tap and trill (ɾ vs. r). It also has both a palatal approximant and fricative (j vs. ʝ).

The syllable structure is generally (C)V(C), allowing for consonant clusters in onset and coda positions.

ORTHOGRAPHY

Alnari uses an Arabic-inspired script, with each phoneme represented by a unique character. Some notable correspondences include:

• θ is written as ث
• x is written as خ
• tʃ is written as چ
• ɲ is written as ڽ
• ʎ is written as ڵ
• ɾ is written as ر
• r is written as ڕ
• ʝ is written as ژ

Vowels are represented as follows:
a: ا, e: ە, i: ی, o: ۆ, u: و

The script is written from right to left, following Arabic convention.

MORPHOSYNTAX

Alnari is an agglutinative language with a rich system of suffixes for grammatical functions.

Nouns are marked for number (singular -sa, plural -sa), case (nominative -ren, accusative -ne, dative -na, genitive -se, ablative -rur, locative -le, instrumental -sa), and definiteness (definite -aʎsu).

Verbs are marked for tense (present -so, past -la, future -len), aspect (imperfective -sa), mood (indicative -sa, conditional -si), person/number agreement (1SG -lu, 2SG -nod, 3SG -sal, 1PL -ner, 3PL -di), and voice (active -ral, passive -na).

Other notable morphemes include:
- Comparative: si
- Superlative: do
- Negation: -su
- Relative clause marker: -nen

SYNTAX

Alnari follows a Subject-Object-Verb (SOV) word order. Adjectives precede the nouns they modify, while adpositions follow their noun complements (postpositions).

Relative clauses are formed using the suffix -nen on the verb and precede the noun they modify.

The language uses postpositions rather than prepositions, consistent with its SOV structure.

EXAMPLE TEXT

Here are a few examples from the provided text, with orthographic representation, gloss, and English translation:

1. ادنەرەن اتنیسە نولۆسالە سی ۆرنی ەبروسارەن اڵسورەن ساسەسۆساسالرال
   ad.ne-ren at.ni-se nu.lo-sa-le si or.ni eb.ru-sa-ren aʎ.su-ren sa.se-so-sa-sal-ral
   he-NOM we-GEN school-SING-LOC COMP smart student-SING-NOM the-NOM be-PRES-IND-3SG-ACT
   "He is the smartest student in our school."
2. یررۆرەن ەپسۆساسە اڵسوسە نەرە نانە وللۆ دۆ اژسا اخناسارەن اڵسورەن ساسەسۆساسالرال
   ir.ro-ren ep.so-sa-se aʎ.su-se ne.re na.ne ul.lo do aʝ.sa ax.na-sa-ren aʎ.su-ren sa.se-so-sa-sal-ral
   today-NOM year-SING-GEN the-GEN of so far SUP hot day-SING-NOM the-NOM be-PRES-IND-3SG-ACT
   "Today is the hottest day of the year so far."
3. نانۆسارەن اڵسورەن لۆلولە اگراسارور اڵسورور ۆبری ۆدنیسۆسادیرال
   na.no-sa-ren aʎ.su-ren lo.lu-le ag.ra-sa-rur aʎ.su-rur ob.ri od.ni-so-sa-di-ral
   leaf-PLUR-NOM the-NOM autumn-LOC tree-PLUR-ABL the-ABL from fall-PRES-IND-3PL-ACT
   "The leaves fall from the trees in autumn."

LEXICON

A small sample of the Alnari lexicon:

اتنی (at.ni) - we
ەررا (er.ra) - I
سیسە (si.se) - you
ادنە (ad.ne) - he
ۆسسو (os.su) - she
راسو (ra.su) - they
نولۆ (nu.lo) - school
ەبرو (eb.ru) - student
اخنا (ax.na) - day
ەپسۆ (ep.so) - year
اگرا (ag.ra) - tree
نانۆ (na.no) - leaf
لۆلو (lo.lu) - autumn
ساسە (sa.se) - to be
ۆدنی (od.ni) - to fall

PHONOLOGY

Cyrillic has a relatively simple phonological system consisting of 20 consonants and 5 vowels:

ORTHOGRAPHY

Cyrillic uses a modified Cyrillic alphabet for its orthography. Some notable correspondences include:

• /θ/ is represented by ѳ
• /ɲ/ is represented by њ
• /ʎ/ is represented by љ
• /ɾ/ is represented by р
• /r/ is represented by р̃
• /j/ is represented by й
• /ʝ/ is represented by ј

This creates an interesting blend of familiar Cyrillic letters with some unique additions to represent the language's specific phonemes.

MORPHOSYNTAX

Cyrillic exhibits a rich morphological system with both nominal and verbal inflection:

Nominal morphology:
- Two numbers: singular (-са) and plural (-са)
- Seven cases: nominative (-рен), accusative (-не), dative (-на), genitive (-се), ablative (-рур), locative (-ле), instrumental (-са)

Verbal morphology:
- Three tenses: present (-со), past (-ла), future (-лен)
- Person and number agreement: 1SG (-лу), 2SG (-нод), 3SG (-сал), 1PL (-нер), 3PL (-ди)
- Mood markers: indicative (-са), conditional (-си)
- Voice markers: active (-рал), passive (-на)

Other notable morphemes:
- Negation: -су
- Relative clause marker: -нен

The language uses suffixes extensively for grammatical marking, creating complex word forms.

SYNTAX

Cyrillic follows an SOV (Subject-Object-Verb) word order for main clauses. Other syntactic features include:

• Adjectives precede the nouns they modify (AN order)
• Postpositions are used instead of prepositions (NP order)
• The language uses numeral classifiers
• There is no inclusive/exclusive distinction in pronouns
• The language does not mark grammatical gender

EXAMPLE TEXT

Here are a few examples from the provided text, with orthography, gloss, and English translation:

1. Аднерен атнисе нулосале си орни ебрусарен аљсурен сасесосасалрал.
   ad.ne-ɾen at.ni-se nu.lo-sa-le si oɾ.ni eb.ɾu-sa-ɾen aʎ.su-ɾen sa.se-so-sa-sal-ɾal
   he-NOM we-GEN school-SING-LOC COMP smart student-SING-NOM the-NOM be-PRES-IND-3SG-ACT
   "He is the smartest student in our school."
2. Атнирен расу осдосале ессоле есне насисонеррал енно, насе сисесе лаблдусарен дасе ерноленсисалрал.
   at.ni-ɾen ɾa.su os.do-sa-le es.so-le es.ne na.si-so-neɾ-ɾal en.no , na.se si.se-se labl.du-sa-ɾen da.se eɾ.no-len-si-sal-ɾal
   we-NOM new office-SING-LOC a-LOC to move-PRES-1PL-ACT are , but you-GEN department-SING-NOM here stay-FUT-COND-3SG-ACT
   "We are moving to a new office, but your department will stay here."
3. Ласесарен аљсурен опсисале аљсуле седа росоласадирал.
   la.se-sa-ɾen aʎ.su-ɾen op.si-sa-le aʎ.su-le se.da ɾo.so-la-sa-di-ɾal
   child-PLUR-NOM the-NOM park-SING-LOC the-LOC in play-PAST-IND-3PL-ACT
   "The children played in the park."

LEXICON

A small sample of the lexicon:

атни - we
нуло - school
орни - smart
ебру - student
расу - new
акле - phone
сасни - expensive
ирро - today
епсо - year
ајса - hot
ахна - day
онре - exercise
нади - book
сина - easy
нола - one
ајле - cake
нано - leaf
агра - tree
игри - wind
осну - bicycle
нило - movie
даса - vacation
сено - garden
реро - tomato

PHONOLOGY

Elythrian has a relatively simple phonological system consisting of 20 consonants and 5 vowels:

The language includes some less common sounds like the palatal nasal ɲ, palatal lateral ʎ, and palatal fricative ʝ. It also distinguishes between a tap ɾ and trill r.

ORTHOGRAPHY

Elythrian uses a modified Greek alphabet for its orthography. Most letters correspond directly to their IPA equivalents, with a few exceptions:

• ου represents /u/
• τσ represents /tʃ/
• νι represents /ɲ/
• λι represents /ʎ/
• ρρ represents /r/ (trill)
• γι represents /ʝ/

Word-final sigma is written as ς instead of σ.

MORPHOSYNTAX

Elythrian is a highly agglutinative language with a rich system of suffixes. Nouns are marked for number (singular/plural) and case (nominative, accusative, dative, genitive, ablative, locative, instrumental). Verbs are marked for tense (present, past, future), aspect (perfective/imperfective), mood (indicative, conditional), person, and number.

Some notable features:
- No gender system
- Extensive use of case marking
- Complex verb conjugation system
- Use of classifiers with numbers

Examples of morphological markers:
- Plural: -σα
- Nominative: -ρεν
- Accusative: -νε
- Past tense: -λα
- Future tense: -λεν
- 3rd person singular: -σαλ

SYNTAX

Elythrian follows an SOV (Subject-Object-Verb) word order. Other syntactic features include:

• Adjectives precede nouns (AN order)
• Postpositions are used instead of prepositions (NP order)
• Relative clauses are formed using the suffix -νεν on the verb
• Subordinate clauses generally precede the main clause

EXAMPLE TEXT

Here are a few examples from the provided text, with orthography, gloss, and English translation:

1. Αδνερεν ατνισε νουλοσαλε σι ορνι εβρουσαρεν αλισουρεν σασεσοσασαλραλ.
   he-NOM we-GEN school-SING-LOC COMP smart student-SING-NOM the-NOM be-PRES-IND-3SG-ACT
   "He is the smartest student in our school."
2. Ιρρορεν επσοσασε αλισουσε νερε νανε ουλλο δο αγισα αχνασαρεν αλισουρεν σασεσοσασαλραλ.
   today-NOM year-SING-GEN the-GEN of so far SUP hot day-SING-NOM the-NOM be-PRES-IND-3SG-ACT
   "Today is the hottest day of the year so far."
3. Νανοσαρεν αλισουρεν λολουλε αγρασαρουρ αλισουρουρ οβρι οδνισοσαδιραλ.
   leaf-PLUR-NOM the-NOM autumn-LOC tree-PLUR-ABL the-ABL from fall-PRES-IND-3PL-ACT
   "The leaves fall from the trees in autumn."

LEXICON

A small sample of the Elythrian lexicon:

PHONOLOGY

Allsurian has a phoneme inventory consisting of 20 consonants and 5 vowels:

Syllable structure appears to be (C)V(C), allowing both open and closed syllables.

ORTHOGRAPHY

Allsurian uses a Latin-based alphabet with some digraphs and diacritics:

p, b, t, d, c, g, f, th, s, ch, m, n, ñ, l, ll, r, rr, y

Vowels are written as in IPA: a, e, i, o, u

MORPHOSYNTAX

Allsurian is a highly agglutinative language with rich morphology:

Nouns:
- Mark number (singular, plural)
- Case system with suffixes: nominative (-ren), accusative (-ne), dative (-na), genitive (-se), ablative (-rur), locative (-le), instrumental (-sa)
- No grammatical gender

Verbs:
- Mark tense (present -so, past -la, future -len)
- Person agreement (e.g., 1SG -lu, 3SG -sal, 1PL -ner, 3PL -di)
- Mood markers (e.g., indicative -sa, conditional -si)
- Voice markers (active -ral, passive -na)

Other features:
- Comparative marker 'si'
- Superlative marker 'do'
- Negation suffix -su

SYNTAX

Allsurian has SOV (Subject-Object-Verb) word order as its basic structure. Other syntactic features include:

• Adjectives precede nouns (AN)
• Postpositions follow nouns (NP)
• Relative clauses are formed with the suffix -nen on the verb
• Subordinate clauses often use the complementizer 'si'
• Numeral classifiers are used between numbers and nouns

EXAMPLE TEXT

Here are a few examples from the provided text, with orthographic transcription, gloss, and English translation:

1. Adneren atnise nulosale si orni ebrusaren allsuren sasesosasalral.
   he-NOM we-GEN school-SING-LOC COMP smart student-SING-NOM the-NOM be-PRES-IND-3SG-ACT
   "He is the smartest student in our school."
2. Atniren rasu osdosale essole esne nasisonerral enno, nase sisese labldusaren dase ernolensisalral.
   we-NOM new office-SING-LOC a-LOC to move-PRES-1PL-ACT are, but you-GEN department-SING-NOM here stay-FUT-COND-3SG-ACT
   "We are moving to a new office, but your department will stay here."
3. Radesaren allsuren annoren upsa runisale essole onsi nosalasasalralnen ipsisane allsune epdolasasalral.
   cat-SING-NOM the-NOM it-NOM small hole-SING-LOC a-LOC into run-PAST-IND-3SG-ACT-REL mouse-SING-ACC the-ACC chase-PAST-IND-3SG-ACT
   "The cat chased the mouse that ran into a small hole."

LEXICON

A small sample of the Allsurian lexicon:

achna - day
agra - tree
allsu - the
anno - live, it
atni - we
dena - this
epso - year
erra - I
essa - have
irro - today
lase - child
nadi - book
nale - see, decide
nero - house
nuso - like
rale - job
rinu - go
sase - be
sise - you
utro - bread

PHONOLOGY

Kethoric has a rich phonemic inventory consisting of 26 consonants and 15 vowels:

ORTHOGRAPHY

Kethoric uses an Arabic-inspired script for its orthography. Some notable correspondences include:

• /p/ → پ
• /tʃ/ → چ
• /ŋ/ → ڭ
• /ɬ/ → ڵ
• /ɬ̥/ → ڶ
• /r̥/ → ڕ
• /ɪ/ → ࢨ
• /ɨ/ → ࢩ
• /æ/ → ࢰ

This orthography allows for a unique visual representation of the language while maintaining a connection to existing writing systems.

MORPHOSYNTAX

Kethoric exhibits a complex agglutinative morphology with numerous affixes for grammatical functions:

1. Number: Singular (-نۇ) and plural (-رəپ)
2. Case: Nominative (-اوڕ), accusative (-ڭەک), dative (-ێو), genitive (-ذۇ), ablative (-ون), locative (-هی), instrumental (-رێڭ)
3. Tense: Present (-ات), past (-رࢨ), future (-کۆن)
4. Aspect: Perfective (-جاچ)
5. Mood: Indicative (-وگ), conditional (-مۇث)
6. Voice: Active (-جاچ), passive (-مۆ)
7. Person agreement: 1SG (-جەر), 2SG (-ايم), 3SG (-لال), 1PL (-ۆف), 3PL (-ۆل)
8. Negation: (-کاي)
9. Relativizer: (-وێ)

Kethoric also uses prefixes for comparison: COMP (ریچ-) and SUP (اين-).

SYNTAX

Kethoric follows an SOV (Subject-Object-Verb) word order for main clauses. Adjectives precede the nouns they modify (AN order), while adpositions follow their noun complements (NP order).

EXAMPLE TEXT

1. سکلاش برڭیينۇاوڕ دوذەاوڕ سکلəذ گاشونۇذۇ دوذەذۇ ڵəرۆ ترثات وࢰننثە گێچەاتوگلالجاچ
   sklaʃ brŋij-nʊ-aʊr̥ du.ðɛ-aʊr̥ skləð ga.ʃu-nʊ-ðʊ du.ðɛ-ðʊ ɬə.ro trθat wæ.nnθɛ ge.tʃɛ-at-ug-lal-dʒatʃ
   new phone-SING-NOM the-NOM old model-SING-GEN the-GEN as twice expensive be-PRES-IND-3SG-ACT
   "The new phone is twice as expensive as the old model."
2. گوتۆگاوڕ فرنوو کلڭۇگذۇ ياکوکنۇهی خیلە بلتۇکاتۆفجاچ سترۆک, کورا پرنۆگنۇاوڕ دوذەاوڕ نوڶۆ گێچەکۆنمۇثلالجاچ
   gwtɔg-aʊr̥ frnuw klŋʊg-ðʊ ja.kuk-nʊ-hi χi.lɛ bltʊk-at-of-dʒatʃ strok , ku.ra prnɔg-nʊ-aʊr̥ du.ðɛ-aʊr̥ nu.ɬ̥ɔ ge.tʃɛ-kɔn-mʊθ-lal-dʒatʃ
   we-NOM next week-GEN vacation-SING-LOC on go-PRES-1PL-ACT are , so office-SING-NOM the-NOM closed be-FUT-COND-3SG-ACT
   "We are going on vacation next week, so the office will be closed."
3. سکلاش گريێل ستسۆمنۇاوڕ فرچەشاوڕ لࢰگگمانۇون دوذەون جəنə رۇخۇبرࢨوگلالمۆ گێچەرࢨوگلالجاچ
   sklaʃ grjel stsɔm-nʊ-aʊr̥ frtʃɛʃ-aʊr̥ lægg.ma-nʊ-un du.ðɛ-un dʒə.nə rʊ.χʊb-rɪ-ug-lal-mo ge.tʃɛ-rɪ-ug-lal-dʒatʃ
   new frog species-SING-NOM a-NOM scientist-SING-ABL the-ABL by discover-PAST-IND-3SG-PASS be-PAST-IND-3SG-ACT
   "A new frog species was discovered by the scientist."

LEXICON

A small selection from the Kethoric lexicon:

PHONOLOGY

Krylovik has a rich phonemic inventory consisting of 26 consonants and 15 vowels:

ORTHOGRAPHY

Krylovik uses a modified Cyrillic alphabet for its orthography. Some notable features include:

1. Use of 'ң' for the velar nasal /ŋ/
2. 'ѳ' represents the dental fricative /θ/
3. 'џ' is used for the affricate /dʒ/
4. 'ԓ' represents the lateral fricative /ɬ/
5. Diacritics are used to represent some vowels: 'ӥ' for /ɪ/, 'ӧ' for /ɔ/, 'ӯ' for /ʊ/, 'ӕ' for /æ/

This orthography allows for a clear representation of the language's phonemic distinctions while maintaining a Cyrillic aesthetic.

MORPHOSYNTAX

Krylovik exhibits a rich agglutinative morphology with both nominal and verbal inflection.

Nominal Morphology:
- Number: Singular (-нӯ) and Plural (-рәп)
- Case: Nominative (-аўр̥), Accusative (-ңэк), Dative (-еў), Genitive (-ђӯ), Ablative (-ун), Locative (-һи), Instrumental (-рең)

Verbal Morphology:
- Tense: Present (-ат), Past (-рӥ), Future (-кӧн)
- Aspect: Perfective (-џач)
- Mood: Indicative (-уг), Conditional (-мӯѳ)
- Voice: Active (-џач), Passive (-мо)
- Person agreement: 1SG (-џэр), 2SG (-айм), 3SG (-лал), 1PL (-оф), 3PL (-ӧл)

Other notable morphemes:
- Negation: -кай
- Relativizer: -ўе

The language also uses classifiers, though the specific system is not detailed in the provided information.

SYNTAX

Krylovik follows an SOV (Subject-Object-Verb) word order, which is typical for agglutinative languages. Other syntactic features include:

1. Adjective-Noun order: Adjectives precede the nouns they modify
2. Postpositions: Adpositions follow their noun phrases
3. Relative clauses: Marked with the -ўе suffix on the verb, likely preceding the head noun

EXAMPLE TEXT

Here are a few examples from the provided text, showcasing various aspects of Krylovik grammar:

1. Маўшәаўр̥ гўтӧгђӯ шусинӯһи рич глфэһ трчэснӯаўр̥ дуђэаўр̥ гечэатуглалџач.
   he-NOM we-GEN school-SING-LOC COMP smart student-SING-NOM the-NOM be-PRES-IND-3SG-ACT
   "He is the smartest student in our school."

This sentence demonstrates the use of case marking (nominative, genitive, locative), as well as verbal morphology for present tense, indicative mood, and third-person singular agreement.

1. Гўтӧгаўр̥ фрнуў клңӯгђӯ йакукнӯһи хилэ блтӯкатофџач строк, кура прнӧгнӯаўр̥ дуђэаўр̥ нуԓ̥ӧ гечэкӧнмӯѳлалџач.
   we-NOM next week-GEN vacation-SING-LOC on go-PRES-1PL-ACT are, so office-SING-NOM the-NOM closed be-FUT-COND-3SG-ACT
   "We are going on vacation next week, so the office will be closed."

This example shows the use of future tense and conditional mood, as well as the SOV word order and postpositional structure.

1. Снбэўаўр̥ рәўэ римонӯңэк тотӧкайатуглалџач.
   she-NOM spicy food-SING-ACC like-NEG-PRES-IND-3SG-ACT
   "She doesn't like spicy food."

This sentence demonstrates the use of the negative suffix -кай in verbal morphology.

LEXICON

A small sample of the Krylovik lexicon:

нуџӧ - and
снгеһ - but
дорә - to
р̥ибе - in
хилэ - on
сайхӧ - for
ѳину - with
џәнә - by
ԓәро - as
гуўэ - at
кура - so
боми - while
дады - when

This lexicon shows a preference for short, mostly monosyllabic words for common grammatical functions and prepositions.

PHONOLOGY

Kythosian has a rich phonemic inventory with 26 consonants and 15 vowels:

The language allows complex syllable structures, with consonant clusters permitted in both onset and coda positions.

ORTHOGRAPHY

Kythosian uses a modified Greek alphabet for its orthography. Some notable correspondences include:

• ŋ is represented by γγ
• ʃ is represented by ς
• tʃ is represented by τς
• dʒ is represented by τζ
• ɬ is represented by λλ
• h is represented by ͱ
• ɬ̥ is represented by λ̥λ
• r̥ is represented by ρ̥
• u is represented by ου
• ɨ is represented by υ

MORPHOSYNTAX

Kythosian is a highly agglutinative language with a rich system of suffixes marking various grammatical categories:

Nouns:
- Number: Singular (-νυ) and Plural (-ρεπ)
- Case: Nominative (-αυρ̥), Accusative (-γγεκ), Dative (-ηω), Genitive (-δυ), Ablative (-ουν), Locative (-ͱι), Instrumental (-ρηγγ)

Other notable suffixes:
- Negation: -και
- Relative clause marker: -ωη

Kythosian also uses prefixes for comparison:
- Comparative: ριτς-
- Superlative: αιν-

SYNTAX

Kythosian follows an SOV (Subject-Object-Verb) word order in main clauses. Other syntactic features include:

• Adjectives precede the nouns they modify (AN order)
• Adpositions follow their noun phrases (NP order)
• Relative clauses are marked on the verb with the suffix -ωη and typically follow the noun they modify
• Subordinate clauses generally precede the main clause
• Questions are formed by intonation rather than word order change

EXAMPLE TEXT

Here are a few examples from the provided text, with orthographic transcription, gloss, and English translation:

1. Μαυςεαυρ̥ δρσουβ μαυρανυηω δωρε δρσουβ τατςενυγγεκ βηγγαριουγλαλτζατς.
   maʊ.ʃə-aʊr̥ drsub maʊ.ra-nʊ-ew do.rə drsub ta.tʃɛ-nʊ-ŋɛk be.ŋa-rɪ-ug-lal-dʒatʃ
   he-NOM his cousin-SING-DAT to his bicycle-SING-ACC lend-PAST-IND-3SG-ACT
   "He lent his bicycle to his cousin."
2. Γωτογαυρ̥ σκλας πρνογνυͱι φρτςεςͱι δωρε λεβεατωφτζατς στρωκ, σνγηͱ κρταμδυ νωττπιχνυαυρ̥ κασυ βρχενκονμυθλαλτζατς.
   gwtɔg-aʊr̥ sklaʃ prnɔg-nʊ-hi frtʃɛʃ-hi do.rə lə.bɛ-at-of-dʒatʃ strok, sngeh krtam-ðʊ nott.pɪχ-nʊ-aʊr̥ ka.sɨ brχɛn-kɔn-mʊθ-lal-dʒatʃ
   we-NOM new office-SING-LOC a-LOC to move-PRES-1PL-ACT are, but you-GEN department-SING-NOM here stay-FUT-COND-3SG-ACT
   "We are moving to a new office, but your department will stay here."
3. Στγγεγνυαυρ̥ δουδεαυρ̥ σκγιτζ ριμωνυγγεκ γωτορ̥καικονμυθλαλτζατς.
   stŋɛg-nʊ-aʊr̥ du.ðɛ-aʊr̥ skgidʒ ri.mo-nʊ-ŋɛk gwtɔr̥-kaɪ-kɔn-mʊθ-lal-dʒatʃ
   cat-SING-NOM the-NOM its food-SING-ACC eat-NEG-FUT-COND-3SG-ACT
   "The cat will not eat its food."

LEXICON

A small sample of the Kythosian lexicon:

PHONOLOGY

Kethébik has a rich phonological inventory with 26 consonants and 15 vowels:

ORTHOGRAPHY

Kethébik uses a modified Latin alphabet. Most consonants are represented straightforwardly, with a few exceptions:

• /ŋ/ is written as 'ng'
• /θ/ is written as 'th'
• /ʃ/ is written as 'sh'
• /χ/ is written as 'kh'
• /ð/ is written as 'dh'
• /tʃ/ is written as 'ch'
• /dʒ/ is written as 'j'
• /ɬ/ and /ɬ̥/ are both written as 'lh'
• /r̥/ is written as 'rh'

Vowels use diacritics to distinguish between similar sounds:

• /e/ is written as 'é'
• /o/ is written as 'ó'
• /ɪ/ is written as 'ï'
• /ʊ/ is written as 'ü'
• /ə/ is written as 'ë'
• /ɨ/ is written as 'y'

MORPHOSYNTAX

Kethébik is a highly agglutinative language with a rich system of suffixes. Nouns are marked for number (singular -nü, plural -rëp) and case. The case system includes:

• Nominative: -aurh
• Accusative: -ngek
• Dative: -éw
• Genitive: -dhü
• Ablative: -un
• Locative: -hi
• Instrumental: -réng

Verbs are marked for tense (present -at, past -rï, future -kon), mood (indicative -ug, conditional -müth), person, and number. They also distinguish between active (-jach) and passive (-mó) voice. Negation is marked by the suffix -kai.

Other notable morphological features include:
- Comparative: rich
- Superlative: ain
- Relative clause marker: -wé

SYNTAX

Kethébik follows an SOV (Subject-Object-Verb) word order. Adjectives precede the nouns they modify (AN), while adpositions follow their noun phrases (NP).

EXAMPLE TEXT

Here are a few examples from the provided text:

1. Maushëaurh gwtogdhü shusinühi rich glfeh trchesnüaurh dudheaurh gécheatuglaljach.
   he-NOM we-GEN school-SING-LOC COMP smart student-SING-NOM the-NOM be-PRES-IND-3SG-ACT
   "He is the smartest student in our school."
2. Shawaaurh krthannüdhü dudhedhü maula kura yaimé ain thrkëlh khómïnüaurh dudheaurh gécheatuglaljach.
   today-NOM year-SING-GEN the-GEN of so far SUP hot day-SING-NOM the-NOM be-PRES-IND-3SG-ACT
   "Today is the hottest day of the year so far."
3. Prpivrëpaurh dudheaurh sptophi rhóbïrëpun dudheun stchés gwfofatugoljach.
   leaf-PLUR-NOM the-NOM autumn-LOC tree-PLUR-ABL the-ABL from fall-PRES-IND-3PL-ACT
   "The leaves fall from the trees in autumn."

LEXICON

A small sample of the Kethébik lexicon:

bltük (v.) - to go
dudhe (det.) - the
géche (v.) - to be
gwtog (pron.) - we
khómï (n.) - day
krchir (pron.) - I
linu (n.) - book
maushë (pron.) - he
rütæ (v.) - to write
shusi (n.) - school
sklash (adj.) - new
snbew (pron.) - she
thrkëlh (adj.) - hot